GIFT   OF 


-  - 


AMIENS  CATHEDRAL  —  THE  NAVE 


ILLUSTRATED  LESSONS 


IN 


COMPOSITION  AND  RHETORIC 


BY 

ERLE    E.    CLIPPINGER 

ASSISTANT     PROFESSOR     OF     ENGLISH 
INDIANA    STATE    NORMAL    SCHOOL 


SILVER,  BURDETT   AND   COMPANY 

BOSTON      NEW  YORK      CHICAGO      SAN  FRANCISCO 


COPYRIGHT,  1912,  BY 
SILVER,  BURDETT  AND  COMPANY 


PREFACE 

THIS  book  aims  to  provide  more  definite  directions  for  a 
secondary  school  course  in  composition  and  rhetoric  than 
are  given  in  the  texts  now  in  use.  Primarily,  the  book  has 
been  prepared  for  the  pupil,  by  the  use  of  theme  assign- 
ments and  illustrations  that  are  related  to  his  experience. 
Secondarily,  it  has  been  prepared  for  the  teacher  as  a  means 
of  economizing  his  time  in  the  preparation  of  definite 
assignments  and  in  the  correction  of  themes.  The  material 
has  been  gathered  gradually  from  classroom  work.  It  has 
been  tested  by  repeated  use  in  normal  school  and  high  school 
classes;  and  the  theme  assignments  have  been  selected 
because  they  bring  good  results. 

The  book  has  three  divisions.  Part  One  contains  about 
fifty  definite  assignments  for  themes  with  simple  discussions 
of  rhetorical  theory.  Each  assignment  is  accompanied  by  a 
list  of  suggested  subjects  and  an  example  that  really  illus- 
trates what  the  theme  should  be.  Part  Two  contains  the 
more  advanced  discussion  of  special  forms  of  discourse. 

Part  Three,  dealing  with  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  diction, 
is  intended  to  supplement  Parts  One  and  Two,  and  should 
be  taught  in  connection  with  them.  Exercises  are  given  in 
Part  One  to  aid  the  teacher  in  assigning  work  in  Part  Three 
in  an  order  suited  to  the  needs  of  the  students.  The  care- 
ful organization  of  the  material  in  Part  Three  will  greatly 
reduce  the  drudgery  of  correcting  themes.  The  "Key  to 
Rules  in  Grammar  and  Diction,"  beginning  on  page  364, 
shows  that  the  rules  are  so  grouped  as  to  be  memorized 
easily.  By  placing  a  rule  number  on  the  margin  .of  the 
theme,  the  teacher  can  refer  the  student  to  a  discussion  of 
his  error. 


303998 


IV  PREFACE 

The  teacher  will  determine  how  rapidly  the  students 
should  proceed  with  the  work  presented  in  the  book.  A 
first  year  class  may  profitably  give  several  days  to  the  dis- 
cussion and  to  the  examples  in  an  exercise  such  as  "  Punc- 
tuation "  or  "  Modifiers,"  and  sometimes  more  than  one  day 
may  be  given  to  the  preparation  of  a  theme.  In  this  way, 
during  the  first  part  of  the  first  year,  the  class  would  write 
one  or  two  simple  themes  each  week  and  at  the  same  time 
would  get  a  thorough  drill  in  capitalization,  punctuation, 
sentence  construction,  and  diction.  If  the  teacher  begins  at 
the  beginning  of  the  book  and  presents  the  work  in  regular 
sequence,  he  may  consider  that  the  work  of  the  book  is  half 
done  when  "Expository  Writing  "is  completed;  however, 
he  may  choose  to  complete  Part  One  in  the  first  half  of  the 
school  course.  The  completion  of  the  long  reminiscence 
(page  47)  may  mark  the  end  of  the  first  fourth  of  the  course. 

The  assignments  for  themes  are  necessarily  somewhat 
general.  The  teacher  may  modify  them  or  substitute  others  ; 
in  any  case,  he  will  do  well  to  vary  the  assignments  from 
term  to  term.  The  teacher  should  insist  that  the  themes  be 
composed  carefully  and  written  neatly.  A  few  themes  care- 
fully written  will  benefit  the  student  more  than  many 
themes  written  hurriedly  and  slovenly.  Further,  the  teacher 
unnecessarily  burdens  himself  by  marking  errors  that  the 
student  could  avoid  by  care  and  patience. 

The  course  in  composition  here  outlined  should  give  the 
student  a  thorough  drill  in  clear  and  unified  thinking  and 
should  teach  him  the  art  of  expressing  his  thoughts  readily 
and  effectively.  Incidentally,  this  course  should  do  two  other 
things  for  the  student.  First,  it  should  call  attention  to  his 
habitual  errors  in  the  use  of  words  and  in  the  construction 
of  sentences,  paragraphs,  and  longer  units  of  discourse. 
Second,  it  should  help  him  to  appreciate  good  literature. 

E.    E.    CLIPPINGER. 


CONTENTS 

PART  I 
LESSONS   IN  THEME  WRITING 


Chapter  I 
Composition  and  the  Forms  of  Discourse 


PAGE 


1.  Composition  and  its  Qualities        .         .         .         .         1 

2.  Types  of  Discourse         ......         4 

Chapter  II 
Descriptive  Writing 

3.  Description  and  How  to  Describe  ...         7 

4.  Theme :  Description      ......       12 

5.  Exercise :  Compound  Words  and  Diction      .         .       14 

6.  Theme:  Description .14 

7.  Exercise :  Capitalization        .....       16 

8.  Theme :  Description      .  ...       16 

9.  Exercise :  Punctuation  /-"  .         .         .         .18 

10.  Theme :  Description      ......       18 

11.  Exercise :  The  Verb ;  Number       ....       20 

12.  Theme:  Description 20 

13.  Theme:  Descriptive-narrative  Sketch    ...       22 

14.  Exercise:  Modifiers       ....  .24 

15.  Theme :  Descriptive-narrative  Sketch  .  .       24 

1 6.  Theme :  Descriptive-narrative  Sketch   ...       26 


vi  CONTENTS 

LESSON  PAGE 

17.  Long  Theme:  Descriptive-narrative  Sketch  .         .  29 

1 8.  Exercise:  Pronouns 31 

19.  Theme:  Descriptive-expository  Sketch         .         .  31 

Chapter  III 

Narrative  Writing 

20.  Narration 33 

21.  Theme:  Reminiscence  ......  39 

22.  Exercise  :  The  Verb ;  Miscellaneous  41 

23.  Theme :  Reminiscence  ......  41 

24.  Theme :  Reminiscence  ......  42 

25.  Exercise:  Coordination  of  Thoughts     .         .         .45 

26.  Theme .45 

27.  Long  Theme :  Reminiscence          ....  45 

28.  Exercise  :  Coordination  of  Thought  Elements       .  47 

29.  Theme :  Reminiscence  ......  47 

30.  Theme :  Short  Story 49 

31.  Exercise:  The  Verb;  Tense 51 

32.  Theme 52 

33.  Theme :  Short  Story .52 

34.  Exercise :  Definitions  in  Diction  .         .  54 

35.  Theme :  Narrative-expository  Sketch    .  54 

36.  Exercise :  Misused  Words  and  Phrases         .         .  56 

37.  Theme  :  Generalized  Reminiscence       ...  57 

38.  Theme 58 

39.  Long  Theme :  Story       ...  58 

Chapter  IV 
Expository  Writing 

40.  Exposition     .         .         .         .         ....  66 

41.  Theme:  Exposition  of  a  Process  .        .        »        .  78 


CONTENTS  vii 


LESSON 

42.   ParaerraDhiner 

PAGE 
80 

43.    Theme  :  Descriptive-expository  Sketch. 

.       85 

44.    Theme:  Exposition        ..... 

.       89 

45.    Theme:  Exposition        

.      90 

46.    Sentence  Structure  :  Periodic,  Balanced,  Loose 

.       92 

47.   Theme  :  Exposition        ..... 

.       98 

48.    Theme  :  Exposition       

.     100 

49.    Theme  :  Exposition  ;  Criticism 

.     103 

50.   Exercise:  Figures  of  Speech 

.     107 

51.   Exercise  :  Figures  of  Speech 

.     107 

52.    Theme  :  Exposition  ;  Criticism      . 

.     109 

53.    Theme  :  Character  Sketch     .... 

.     116 

54.    Exercise  :  Diction  and  Abbreviations    . 

.     118 

55.    Long  Theme  :  Exposition      .... 

.     118 

Chapter  V 

Argumentative  Writing 

56.   Argumentation       ...... 

.     124 

57.   Exercise  :  Reasoning     .         . 

.     136 

58.    Theme:  Argumentation         .... 

.     137 

59.   Theme:  Argumentation 

.     141 

60.   Exercise  :  Special  Properties  of  Style   . 

.     143 

6l.   Theme:  Argumentation         .... 

.     143 

Chapter  VI 

Letter  Writing 

62.   Letter  Writing       .         . 

.     148 

63.    Theme  :  Letter  of  Inquiry     .... 

.     159 

64.    Theme  :  Letter  of  Application 

.     160 

65.    Theme  :  Letter  of  Request    .... 

.     162 

66.    Theme  :  Letter  of  Congratulation 

.     163 

viii  CONTENTS 

LESSON  PAOR 

67.  Theme :  Informal  Note 163 

68.  Theme :  Formal  Note 164 

69.  Theme :  Formal  Card 165 


PART  II 
SPECIAL   FORMS   OF  DISCOURSE 


Chapter  VII 

Oral  Composition 169 

Chapter  VIII 

The  Fable 172 

Chapter  IX 

News  Writing 176 

Chapter  X 

The  Essay 185 

The  Editorial  Essay 186 

The  Biographical  Essay 189 

Essays  in  Literary  Criticism          ....  193 

Essays  in  Art  Criticism 200 

Reviews ...  203 

Chapter  XI 

Forms  of  Public  Address 210 

Addresses  for  Special  Occasions    .         .                  .  213 
The  Oration  .                                                              .220 

The  After-dinner  Speech       .                                   .  234 


CONTENTS  IX 

V 

Chapter  XII 

PAGE 

Debating      ...                        ....  239 

Chapter  XIII 
Poetry .253 

PART   III 
GRAMMAR,  RHETORIC,  AND  DICTIONARY 

Rules  in  Grammar  and  Diction 

Capitalization  (Rules  1-5)     .....  265 

Punctuation  (Rules  6-20) 269 

The  Verb :  Number  (Rules  21-25)         .         .         .285 

The  Verb:  Tense  (Rules  26-30)    ....  290 

The  Verb :  Miscellaneous  (Rules  31-35)       .         .  21)7 

Pronouns  (Rules  36-45) 302 

Modifiers  (Rules  46-55) 300 

Coordination    and    Subordination    of    Thoughts 

(Rules  56-60) 319 

Coordination  and  Subordination  of  Thought  Ele- 
ments (Rules  61-65) 323 

Compound  AVords  (Rules  66-70)  ....  327 

Diction  (Rules  71-75) 332 

Definitions  in  Diction 335 

Glossary  of  Misused  Words  and  Phrases  .        .        .  339 

Figures  of  Speech  and  Forms  of  Arrangement  .        .  348 

Special  Properties  of  Style 353 

Table  of  Common  Abbreviations       ....  359 

DIRECTIONS  FOR  WRITING  AND  CORRECTING  THEMES  .  360 

KEY  TO  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  AND  DICTION       .        .  364 

INDEX  .  369 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


Amiens  Cathedral,  The  Nave       .         .         .        Frontispiece 


FACING 
PAGE 


An  Old  New  England  Bedroom    . 

"  The  Spangled  Bedroom,"  Knole,  Kent 


Eays  of  the  Sun Charles  Cottet  16 

1  20 
titj 

The  Beggar  .         .         .         .  ,      .          H.  G.  E.  Degas  22 

Soapbubbles          .....          Edouard  Manet  51 

The  Boyhood  of  Ealeigh       .         .  John  Everett  Millais  57 
The  Temple  of  Neptune  at  Paestum      .         .        .         .201 

Thomas  Carlyle    .        .         .    James  McNeill  Whistler  202 


PART  I 
LESSONS  IN  THEME  WRITING 


CHAPTER  I 
COMPOSITION  AND  THE   FORMS   OF  DISCOURSE 

LESSON   1 
COMPOSITION  AND   ITS   QUALITIES 

THE  word  compose  means  to  put  together,  to  con- 
struct. When  the  musician  composes  a  piece  of 
music,  he  puts  together  sounds  expressed  in  notes ; 
when  the  author  composes  a  story,  he  puts  together 
ideas  expressed  in  words.  The  composition  of 
forms  of  discourse  is  called  literary  composition ; 
and  in  this  book  the  word  composition  will  be  used 
in  that  sense.  Considering  the  word  in  this  nar- 
rowed meaning,  we  may  say, 

The  study  of  composition  treats  of  the  organiza- 
tion of  thought  and  of  its  expression  by  means  of 
language. 

A  composition,  or  a  discourse,  is  a  piece  of  spoken 
or  written  language  which  expresses  a  person's 
thought  about  a  subject. 

Composition  is  one  of  the  few  regular  school  sub- 
jects primarily  devoted  to  training  the  student 
to  do  practical  work.  Like  manual  training,  draw- 
ing, music,  and  laboratory  work,  it  teaches  the 
student  how  to  do  things. 


COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

toric '.and  competition  are  not  always  dis- 
tinguished, because  they  are  usually  studied  to- 
gether ;  however,  the  difference  between  them  should 
be  understood.  Composition  produces  discourse ; 
rhetoric  analyzes  discourse  to  determine  its  structure. 
Rhetoric  is  that  language  study  which  analyzes  dis- 
course to  determine  the  principles  of  its  structure. 

Four  qualities,  —  unity,  proportion,  proper  ar- 
rangement, and  coherence,  —  belong  to  every  good 
piece  of  work.  Whether  a  person  wishes  to  make 
a  composition,  a  pie,  or  a  wagon,  he  must  give  it 
unity,  proportion,  proper  arrangement,  and  coher- 
ence, or  it  will  not  be  good. 

The  word  unity  means  oneness.  The  quality  of 
unity  is  secured  by  the  selection  of  proper  material. 
A  story  will  lack  unity  if  the  person  tell- 
ing it  omits  details  that  are  necessary  to 
give  the  hearer  or  reader  the  desired  impressions ;  and 
it  will  also  lack  unity  if  irrelevant  details  are  used. 
If  you  ask  a  man  the  way  to  a  person's  house, 
his  reply  will  lack  unity  if  he  omits  important 
details.  Again,  it  will  lack  unity  if  he  talks  about 
the  weather  and  the  crops  while  telling  you  the 
way.  A  lack  of  unity  is  one  of  the  .most  common 
faults  both  in  spoken  and  in  written  discourse. 

The  word  proportion  means  the  adaptation  of 

one  part  to  another.     The  quality  of  pro- 
Proportion          *        .  .  ,          .        ,, 

portion  is  secured  by  using  the  proper 

amount  of  material  for  each  part  of  the  thing  to  be 


COMPOSITION  AND   ITS  QUALITIES  3 

made.  Every  cook  knows  that  a  pie  will  be  spoiled 
by  the  use  of  too  much  or  too  little  of  one  ma- 
terial, and  every  good  writer  or  speaker  knows  that 
proportion  is  equally  essential  in  a  discourse.  A  de- 
scription of  a  room  will  lack  proportion  if  half  of 
it  is  about  the  stove.  A  story  will  lack  proportion 
if  half  of  it  is  introduction.  The  reader  should 
always  feel  that  each  part  of  the  thought  receives 
its  share  of  consideration  ;  that  important  parts  are 
not  slighted,  or  unimportant  ones  given  undue  con- 
sideration. 

Proper  arrangement  is  the  quality  that  a  thing 
has  when  the  parts  are  correctly  placed  and  related. 
If  the  parts  of  a  watch  are  not  properly  properAr- 
ar ranged,  it  will  not  keep  good  time.  If  rangement 
the  parts  of  a  discourse  are  not  properly  arranged, 
the  discourse  will  be  grammatically  incorrect  or 
rhetorically  ineffective. 

The  word  cohere  means  to  hold  together,  An  ob- 
ject has  the  quality  of  coherence  when  its  parts 
hold  firmly  together.  A  piece  of  dis- 

-,      ,  i    , .        i          Coherence 

course  Jacks  coherence  if  the  relation  be- 
tween the  thoughts  is  not  clearly  shown.  The  rela- 
tion between  thoughts  may  be  shown  by  the  use  of 
connective  words  or  by  the  repetition  of  words, 
when  it  is  not  otherwise  apparent.  Coherence  can 
sometimes  be  secured  by  the  addition  of  a  phrase  or 
sentence  at  the  end  of  one  paragraph  or  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  other.  Of  course,  coherence  can 


4  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

never  be  secured  between  two  sentences  or  para- 
graphs if  the  thoughts  are  not  related.  In  such  a 
case  the  discourse  lacks  unity,  and  one  of  the  sen- 
tences or  paragraphs  must  be  omitted  or  changed. 

Good  writing,  like  good  work  of  any  kind,  must 
have  unity,  proportion,  proper  arrangement,  and 
coherence.  The  student  must  not  expect  to  create 
masterpieces  on  the  first  day,  but  he  should  en- 
deavor to  construct  simple  forms  of  discourse  that 
will  be  artistic.  Each  student  has  a  personality 
which  differs  from  that  of  his  fellows,  and  just  so 
far  as  he  succeeds  in  clearly  expressing  a  definite 
thought  or  emotion  regarding  a  subject,  will  his 
writing  be  good. 

LESSON  2 

TYPES   OF  DISCOURSE 

IN  the  study  of  composition  it  is  sometimes  con- 
venient to  speak  of  different  types  of  discourse. 
This  enables  the  student  to  classify  discourse,  more 
or  less  definitely,  and  to  tell  in  a  word  the  general 
qualities  and  characteristics  of  the  literature  under 
consideration.  It  also  enables  the  teacher  to  de- 
scribe in  a  word  the  nature  of  the  themes  desired. 

Though  we  classify  discourse,  a  piece  of  writing 
rarely  belongs  exclusively  to  one  type.  Indeed,  on 
the  single  page  of  a  novel  may  appear  in  turn,  nar- 
ration, description,  exposition,  and  argumentation. 
If  a  piece  of  discourse  is  good,  however,  one  of 


TYPES  OF  DISCOURSE  5 

these  types  predominates.  Narration  is  the  pre- 
dominant type  in  the  novel,  but  it  may  contain 
much  description,  and  some  exposition  and  argu- 
mentation as  well.  In  this  book  we  shall  study 
each  kind  of  discourse  separately,  that  we  may 
learn  its  nature  and  its  use  :  we  shall  also  study  the 
relation  of  the  various  types  to  each  other. 

Description  and  narration  deal  with  individual 
concrete  subject  matter,  with  things  that  can  be 
perceived  through  the  senses ;  they  are  Description 
sometimes  called  emotional  discourse  be-  and  Narra- 
cause  they  usually  appeal  more  or  less 
to  the  emotions.  Anything  that  can  be  known 
through  the  senses,  directly  or  by  imagination,  such 
as  a  house,  a  garden,  a  man,  or  a  fairy,  might  be  a 
subject  for  description  or  for  narration.  On  the 
other  hand,  one  could  not  write  a  description  or  a 
narration  about  a  subject  that  could  not  be  known 
directly  through  the  senses ;  for  example,  one  could 
not  write  a  description  or  a  narration  about  Hon- 
esty, Houses,  or  the  proposition,  "  We  should  study 
composition." 

Both  description  and  narration,  then,  deal  with 
particular    subject    matter.     Description  , 

J  .  Description 

tells  how  the  particular  thing  or  person  and  Narra- 
appealed  to  the  senses:    how  it  looked,       tion De- 
sounded,  smelled,  felt,  and  tasted.     Nar- 
ration tells  what  the  particular  thing  or  person  did 
during  a  particular  period  of  time. 


6  COMPOSITION  AND   RHETORIC 

Exposition  and  argumentation  deal  with  gen- 
eral, abstract  subject  matter  that  cannot  be  known 
through  the  senses,  and  are  sometimes  called  logical 
discourse  because  they  usually  appeal  to  the  un- 
derstanding more  than  to  the  emotions.  If  one 
should  write  or  speak  about  Honesty,  Houses,  or 
the  proposition,  "We  should  study  composition," 
he  would  use  either  exposition  or  argumentation. 

Exposition  explains  things  that  cannot  be  known 
directly  through  the  senses,  dealing  with  the  nature, 
Exposition  meaning,  use,  cause,  effect,  result,  and 
Defined  classification  of  objects.  This  chapter  is 
expository  because  its  purpose  is  to  explain  the 
nature  and  various  types  of  discourse.  Textbooks 
in  botany,  anatomy,  chemistry,  etc.  are  largely  ex- 
position. If  a  person  tells  what  baseball  is  and 
how  it  is  played,  he  uses  exposition.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  he  tells  about  a  particular  baseball  game, 
his  discourse  is  narrative  and  descriptive,  because 
he  tells  about  a  particular  thing  that  was  perceived 
through  the  senses  at  a  particular  time. 

Argumentation  is  the  kind  of  discourse  that  at- 
tempts to  convince  or  persuade  that  a  statement  is 
Argumen-  ^rue*  Thus,  if  we  try  to  persuade  a  per- 
tation  De-  son  that  he  should  study  composition, 
that  we  should  have  a  holiday,  or  that  we 
did  not  take  his  book,  we  use  argumentation. 


CHAPTER  II 
DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

LESSON   3 
DESCRIPTION   AND   HOW  TO   DESCRIBE 

Description  is  that  kind  of  discourse  which  sug- 
gests how  a  particular  thing  appealed  to  the  senses 
of  the  writer  or  speaker  at  a  particular  time.  A 
description  usually  gives  details  perceived  through 
sight,  such  as  the  color,  shape,  size,  and  position  of 
the  particular  thing ;  but  it  may  also  give  details 
perceived  by  the  other  senses,  such  as  the  sound, 
odor,  taste,  and  feeling  of  the  particular  thing. 

It  is  difficult  to  find  a  long  piece  of  discourse  that 
is  entirely  description.  If  we  look  in  a  modern 
novel  we  shall  find  much  description  used,  but  most 
of  the  descriptions  will  be  short.  The  author  may 
use  only  a  few  words  or  sentences  at  a  time  to  sug- 
gest the  appearance  of  the  persons  and  places ;  but 
these  short  descriptive  parts  may  be  so  frequent  and 
so  vivid  as  to  form  an  important  part  of  the  novel. 
In  a  book  of  travel  the  descriptions  are  usually  held 
together  by  a  thread  of  narration,  and  we  may  find 
some  exposition. 

Two  kinds  of  description  are  distinguished  :  scien- 

7 


8  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

tific  description  and  artistic  description,  differenti- 
ated one  from  the  other  by  their  details.  A  piece 
of  description  is  not  clearly  of  one  kind  or  the  other 
if  it  contains  both  scientific  and  artistic  details. 

Scientific  description  gives  specifications  and 
mechanical  details  regarding  the  particular  thing. 
A  scientific  description  of  a  house  might  give  the 
exact  size,  the  exact  shape,  the  exact  position  of  the 
parts,  or  other  mechanical  details.  Such  a  descrip- 
tion appeals  directly  to  the  understanding. 

Artistic  description  gives  details  that  cause  a  par- 
ticular thing  to  appeal  to  the  emotions  of  the  reader 
or  hearer  as  it  did  to  those  of  the  writer  or  speaker. 

Artistic  description  is  also  called  "  literary  descrip- 
tion "  and  "  emotional  description."  An  artistic 
description  of  a  house  might  give  the  details  that 
caused  the  author  to  feel  that  it  was  an  old,  deso- 
late building ;  for  example,  sagging  roof,  fallen 
chimney,  decayed  siding,  broken  panes,  and  leaf- 
strewn  porch.  This  is  the  kind  of  description  that 
is  usually  found  in  novels  and  stories,  and  it  is  this 
kind  of  description  that  we  are  to  study  princi- 
pally. Emotional  description  is  much  influenced 
by  the  mood  of  the  author.  To-day  an  observer 
does  not  feel  about  a  scene  exactly  as  he  did  yes- 
terday, and  to-morrow  his  feelings  will  again  be 
different.  Therefore,  no  two  descriptions  of  that 
scene  will  have  exactly  the  same  tone,  even  if  the 
scene  really  does  not  change. 


HOW  TO  DESCRIBE  9 

HOW  TO   DESCRIBE 

Point  of  view  in  description  is  the  place  in 
which  the  writer  imagines  he  stood  when  he 
observed  the  thing  described.  A  descrip-  p0int  of 
tion  should  not  contain  details  that  could  view 

not  be  seen  from  the  writer's  point  of  view.  If 
the  writer  describes  a  distant  house  he  should  not 
mention  minute  details,  such  as  things  in  the  house 
or  things  behind  the  house,  for  he  could  not  see 
them  from  his  point  of  view. 

In  the  first  part  of  any  discourse  the  writer 
should  let  the  reader  know  what  he  is  going  to  talk 
about.  In  description,  if  the  writer  in-  pirstLaw 
tends  to  describe  a  room  he  should  not  ofAmmge- 
begin  by  talking  about  the  fireplace  or 
the  table  :  he  should  begin  by  letting  the  reader 
know  that  he  is  going  to  talk  about  a  room.  If 
the  reader  gets  the  framework,  or  general  notion 
of  the  thing  to  be  described,  he  can  add  minor 
details  gradually  and  build  up  a  clear  idea.  On 
the  other  hand,  if  minor  details  are  given  first,  the 
reader  may  have  to  reconstruct  his  notion  of  the 
thing  several  times,  and  the  result  is  likely  to  be 
only  a  confused  idea  of  the  thing.  If  a  person, 
wishing  to  describe  a  cobbler's  shop,  begins  the 
description  thus :  "  The  room  was  small  and  dingy," 
he  will  give  a  better  notion  of  the  place  than  if 
he  begins,  "  The  stove  was  little  and  covered 
with  rust."  However,  a  better  way  to  begin  would 


10  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

be,  "  The  cobbler's  shop  was  small  and  dingy ." 
This  first  law  of  arrangement  is  important,  and 
it  is  applicable  not  to  description  alone  but  to 
all  kinds  of  discourse.  Build  the  framework  first. 
Do  not  write  half  the  theme  before  you  let  the 
reader  know  what  you  are  talking  about. 

The  success  of  a  description  depends  largely  upon 
the  order  in  which  the  details  are  given.  The  nat- 
Order  of  ural  order  of  details,  and  usually  the  best 
Details  order,  is  that  in  which  they  are  perceived. 
If  a  person  looks  at  a  building,  he  does  not  see 
everything  at  once  :  the  longer  he  looks  the  more 
he  sees.  At  first  he  gets  a  general  impression ; 
then  he  sees  the  more  remarkable  details ;  and  the 
most  minute  details  he  perceives  last.  It  is  some- 
times advisable,  however,  to  end  a  description  by 
emphasizing  the  general  appearance. 

Successful  description  is  also  dependent  upon  the 
selection  of  particular  details.  Particular  details 
Particular  cire  the  characteristics  that  distinguish  a 
Details  thing  from  all  other  things.  They  are 
the  details  which  cause  a  thing  to  give  a  particular 
impression.  If  a  certain  person  gives  us  an  impres- 
sion of  craftiness,  we  may  discover  that  it  is  because 
of  the  particular  details :  stealthy  movements,  half- 
closed,  constantly  moving  eyes,  lips  held  close  to- 
gether, and  a  scar  on  the  forehead.  If  a  room  gives 
an  impression  of  quiet  contentment,  its  individual 
tone  may  be  due  to  the  details:  an  open  fire;  the 


HOW  TO  DESCRIBE  II 

dim  light  of  an  oil  lamp,  grandfather  asleep  with  a 
paper  in  his  hand,  grandmother  knitting,  a  cat 
asleep  by  the  fireplace.  An  author,  like  a  painter 
or  a  cartoonist,  cannot  succeed  by  merely  recogniz- 
ing that  a  scene  is  beautiful,  or  that  a  face  is  re- 
markable, —  he  must  see  the  particular  details. 
Any  one  can  see  that  the  face  of  Abraham  Lincoln 
or  of  Theodore  Roosevelt  is  remarkable;  but  the 
cartoonist  and  the  literary  artist  must  appreciate 
the  details  that  make  the  face  give  the  impression 
that  it  does.  Literary  description  is  the  most 
artistic  form  of  prose  composition  because  it  is  so 
dependent  on  particular  details  that  appeal  to  the 
emotions  through  the  senses. 

A  literary  description  is  not  necessarily  good 
because  it  contains  particular  details :  it  is  good 
only  when  it  contains  those  particular  selection 
details  which  cause  the  writer  to  think  ofPartku- 
and  feel  as  he  does  about  the  object  which  larDetails 
he  describes.  If  a  description  is  to  have  unity  of 
impression  and  is  to  convey  the  author's  idea,  it 
must  meet  the  requirements  of  unity  which  were 
given  in  Lesson  1  :  it  must  contain  the  significant 
details  of  the  desired  impression  and  must  eliminate 
all  others.  Many  details  cause  confusion,  and  un- 
necessary details  prevent  the  composition  from  ac- 
complishing its  desired  effect.  A  description  of  the 
room  of  quiet  contentment,  suggested  above,  would 
be  injured  by  the  presence  of  details  that  would 


12  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

not  help  to  suggest  the  impression  desired.  Mechan- 
ical details  giving  exact  position  and  size  are  to  be 
especially  avoided  in  literary  description.  Nothing 
would  be  gained  by  saying  that  the  fireplace  was 
on  the  north  side  of  the  room,  that  the  cat  was 
four  feet  from  grandmother,  and  that  the  two 
windows  were  on  the  east  side  of  the  room.  The 
purpose  of  description  is  to  awaken  in  the  mind  of 
the  hearer  or  reader  an  image  similar  to  the  one 
that  the  author  has.  Details  that  do  not  help  to 
accomplish  this  purpose  should  be  avoided. 

LESSON   4 

Short  theme  assignment : 1  Write  a  description 
of  a  night  scene  in  which  the  center  of  interest  will 
be  a  building  of  some  kind.  Let  the  theme  have 
one  definite  emotional  tone. 

Instructions :  — 

1.  Use  the  past  tense  in  descriptions  and  nar- 
rations. 

2.  Do  not  use  the  pronoun  /,  and  do  not  refer 
to  the  person  who  is  describing  the  scene :  write 
only  of  the  scene. 

3.  Use  only  one  point  of   view  and  do  not  tell 
what  that  point  of  view  is. 

4.  Usually  the  material  of  a  short  theme  should 

1  These  assignments  are  merely  suggestive.  The  teacher  may 
vary  them  from  term  to  term. 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  13 

be  developed  in  a  single  paragraph  about  one  page 
in  length. 

NOTE  1.  —  These  instructions  apply  to  all  themes  in  pure 
description. 

NOTE  2.  —  Before  writing  this  theme,  study  carefully  the 
general  directions  given  in  Part  III,  beginning  on  page  360. 

Example :  — 

THE  WOOD-CUTTER'S  HOME 

A  Student's  Theme 

The  little  log  hut  was  asleep  beneath  the  branches  of  the 
giant  oaks.  Its  rest  was  undisturbed  by  the  night  wind, 
which  rustled  the  ivy  leaves  on  the  dark,  vine-covered  porch. 
In  the  fragrant  little  dooryard,  tall  asters  shone  white  and 
starlike,  and  the  yellow  plumes  of  the  goldenrod  nodded 
sleepily  to  them  in  the  moonlight.  A  few  stray  clouds 
hurried  across  the  sky,  and  from  the  distance  came  the  wail 
of  a  lonely  dog  baying  at  the  moon.  The  sturdy  little  hut, 
however,  rested  secure  and  unconcerned  beneath  the  protect- 
ing branches  of  the  oak  trees. 

Before  beginning  to  write,  imagine  your  subject 
clearly  (perhaps  with  closed  eyes).  See  just  where 
everything  is.  Arrange  the  material  of  the  theme 
with  care.  In  the  first  part  give  details  that  will 
enable  the  reader  to  construct  in  his  mind  a  frame- 
work upon  which  to  build ;  for  example,  the  time 
of  year,  the  time  of  day,  the  kind  of  weather,  and 
the  general  appearance  of  the  chief  thing  to  be 
described.  Also  choose  such  details  as  will  give 
unity  of  emotional  tone  to  the  theme.  Note  how 


I4  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

the  example  contains  details  which  leave  with  the 
reader  a  feeling  of  loneliness.  Do  not  say  that  the 
scene  is  one  of  quiet  contentment,  or  weird  desola- 
tion, or  confused  activity;  give  the  particular 
details  which  will  cause  the  scene  to  produce  the 
emotional  effect. 

Suggested  subjects :  A  factory,  brilliantly  lighted  or  dark 
and  sullen ;  An  old  mill,  fallen  through  disuse  or  left  in  ruin 
by  a  fire ;  A  farmhouse,  half  buried  in  snow ;  An  old  school- 
house,  beneath  the  autumn-colored  trees;  or  any  building 
which  the  student  may  choose. 

LESSON  5 

Exercise :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion 
of  Compound  Words,  beginning  on  page  327,  and 
the  discussion  of  Diction,  beginning  on  page  332. 

LESSON   6 

Short  theme  assignment:  Write  a  description  of 
a  scene  in  which  the  center  of  interest  will  be  a  body 
of  water,  such  as  a  small  pond,  a  lake,  or  the  ocean. 

NOTE.  —  Kead  again  the  instructions  under  the  assignment 
in  Lesson  4. 

Example :  — 

BARRY'S  POND1 

Below  the  crest  of  the  hill  was  a  pond,  looking  almost 
like  a  river,  so  long  and  winding  it  was.  A  bridge  spanned 
it  midway,  and  from  there  to  its  lower  end,  where  an  amber- 

1From  Anne  of  Green  Gables,  by  L.  M.  Montgomery.  Copy- 
right, 1^08,  L.  C.  Page  &  Company,  . 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  15 

hued  belt  of  sand  hills  shut  it  in  from  the  dark  blue  gulf 
beyond,  the  water  in  the  evening  light  was  a  glory  of  many 
shifting  hues  —  the  most  spiritual  shadings  of  crocus  and 
rose  and  ethereal  green,  with  other  elusive  tintings  for  which 
no  name  has  ever  been  found.  Above  the  bridge  the  pond 
ran  up  into  fringing  groves  of  fir  and  maple,  and  lay  all 
darkly  translucent  in  their  wavering  shadows.  Here  and 
there  a  wild  plum  leaned  out  from  the  bank  like  a  white- 
clad  girl  tiptoeing  to  her  own  reflection.  From  the  marsh  at 
the  head  of  the  pond  came  the  clear,  mournfully  sweet 
chorus  of  frogs.  There  was  a  little  gray  house  peeping 
around  a  white  apple  orchard  on  a  slope  beyond  and,  although 
it  was  not  yet  quite  dark,  a  light  was  shining  from  one  of 
the  windows. 

The  student  should  mention  the  center  of  interest 
in  the  first  part  of  his  theme,  for  it  is  to  be  the  chief 
part  of  the  description.  Such  details  as  the  time  of 
year,  the  time  of  day,  and  the  kind  of  weather,  if 
given  at  all,  should  be  in  the  first  part  of  the 
theme.  Later,  details  of  shore,  fields,  and  sky  may 
be  given.  The  student  is  left  free  to  choose  the 
time  of  year,  the  time  of  day,  and  the  emotional 
tone  of  the  theme  unless  the  teacher  specifies  what 
they  shall  be. 

Suggested  subjects:  A  lily  pond,  on  a  bright  May 
morning,  on  a  sultry  June  afternoon,  on  a  leafy  Septem- 
ber evening,  or  on  a  bleak  November  day;  Black  Swamp 
on  a  rainy  morning;  A  meadow  pond  at  harvest  time; 
A  lonely  lake  on  an  autumn  evening;  The  Ohio  River  at 
sunrise. 

Or  describe  the  picture  opposite  page  16.  Imagine  that 
you  stood  with  the  artist,  looking  off  at  the  scene  it  portrays, 


1 6  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

and  describe  the  scene  as  it  appeared  to  you.  First  men- 
tion the  time  of  day  and  the  center  of  interest,  —  the  boats 
in  the  river  or  bay.  Describe  the  boats,  and  tell  what  the 
men  were  doing.  -Mention  the  shore  and  sky,  and  do  not 
forget  the  lights  and  shadows  in  the  water  and  on  the 
sails.  Try  to  give  the  reader  the  impression  which  the 
scene  made  on  you.  Make  him  feel  as  you  felt. 

LESSON   7 

Exercise  :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion 
of  Capitalization,  beginning  on  page  265. 

LESSON   8 

Short  theme  assignment :  Write  a  description  of 
a  landscape ;  for  example,  a  dooryard,  a  park,  a 
valley,  a  prairie,  a  wheat  field,  or  a  marsh.  Use 
details  that  will  give  the  theme  a  definite  emotional 
tone. 

Example :  — 

A  VIEW  IN  SWITZERLAND1 

Ear  below  there  was  a  broad,  flat  valley.  The  gloaming 
already  covered  it,  as  with  a  filmy  gauze.  The  colors  were 
all  low-pitched  but  not  yet  extinguished.  Here  and  there  a 
green  field  made  a  subdued  high  light  and  gave  the  somber 
plain  an  air  of  irrepressible  vitality.  Opposite,  on  the  other 
side  of  the  valley,  were  two  tiers  of  gray-black  hills,  flat 
walls  of  shade,  with  outlines  as  distinct  and  jagged  as  if  they 
had  been  cut  out  of  giant  pasteboard,  the  setting  of  some 
more  than  Wagnerian  opera.  Beyond  the  hills  there  lay  a 

1  From  John  Perctfeld,  by  C.  Hanford  Henderson.  Copy- 
right, Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


-THEME   ASSIGNMENT  17 

purple  cloud  that  mimicked  the  empty  space  that  stretches 
along  and  beyond  the  horizon.  But  above  the  cloud,  unreal 
in  its  isolation  and  its  transcendent  beauty,  rose  the  solemn, 
snowy  stillness  of  Mont" Blanc.  It  was  in  the  sunlight,  in 
the  light  that  for  the  rest  of  the  world  had  already  faded, 
and  stood  there  palpitating  rose  and  gold.  The  effect  of  the 
entire  scene  was  tremendous.  It  was  like  a  vision  of  the 
New  Jerusalem,  like  the  dazzle  of  walls  of  jasper,  like  a 
glimpse  of  another  world,  radiant,  perfect,  eternal. 

In  the  first  part  of  your  theme  try  to  build  up 
the  framework  of  the  idea.  For  example,  say : 
"  It  was  a  neat,  prim  little  garden  with  a  wide 
gravel  path  running  down  the  middle." 

Much  has  been  said  about  the  order  of  details. 
Perhaps  the  best  rule  is  that  details  should  be  men- 
tioned in  the  order  in  which  they  would  naturally 
be  seen.  Always  avoid  confusing  the  reader  by 
moving  the  eye  here  and  there.  If  there  is  a 
center  of  interest,  as  in  the  preceding  assignments, 
mention  it  first  and  group  minor  details  about  it. 
Sometimes  such  an  object  as  a  path  or  a  brook  may 
be  made  the  center  about  which  minor  details  may 
be  arranged.  Mr.  Henderson  first  presented  the 
details  nearest  to  the  observer,  and  then  let  the  eye 
move  gradually  to  the  distance. 

Again,  something  may  well  be  said  about  care 
and  neatness  in  writing  themes.  A  course  in  com- 
position will  not  be  of  much  value  to  a  student 
unless  he  writes  carefully.  Every  letter  and  every 
mark  of  punctuation  should  be  distinct.  The  stu- 


l8  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

dent  should  be  ashamed  to  present  a  theme  that  is 
not  as  nearly  perfect  as  he  can  make  it,  and  the 
teacher  should  realize  that  he  harms,  rather  than 
aids,  a  student  by  accepting  themes  that  are  hur- 
riedly and  slovenly  written. 

The  student  may  be  allowed  to  choose  the  time 
of  year,  the  time  of  day,  and  the  emotional  tone  of 
the  theme,  unless  otherwise  directed  by  the  teacher. 

Suggested  subjects :  A  cornfield  as  it  would  appear  on  a 
rainy  October  morning ;  A  bare,  brown  prairie  as  it  would 
appear  in  the  indistinct  light  of  evening;  A  valley  as  it 
would  appear  just  before  sunrise  if  viewed  from  a  hill ;  A 
grassy  marsh  viewed  on  a  warm,  clear  June  evening. 

LESSON  9 

Exercise :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion 
of  Punctuation,  beginning  on  page  269. 

LESSON   1O 

Short  theme  assignment :  Write  a  description  of 
a  room  or  hall. 

Example :  — 

THE  PARLOR 

The  room  was  very  large  and  lofty.  The  windows  were 
long,  narrow,  and  pointed,  and  at  so  vast  a  distance  from  the 
black  oaken  floor  as  to  be  altogether  inaccessible  from  within. 
Feeble  gleams  of  encrimsoned  light  made  their  way  through 
the  trellised  paries,  and  served  to  render  sufficiently  distinct 
the  more  prominent  objects  around ;  the  eye,  however, 
struggled  in  vain  to  reach  the  remoter  angles  of  the  chamber, 
or  the  recesses  of  the  vaulted  and  fretted  ceiling.  Dark 
draperies  hung  upon  the  walls.  The  general  furniture  was 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  19 

profuse,  comfortless,  antique,  and  tattered.  Many  books 
and  musical  instruments  lay  scattered  about,  but  failed  to 
give  any  vitality  to  the  scene.  .  .  .  An  air  of  stern,  deep, 
and  irredeemable  gloom  hung  over  and  pervaded  all.  —  POE, 
Fall  of  the  House  of  Usher. 

It  is  difficult  to  write  a  description  of  a  room 
which  will  not  seem  like  a  mere  enumeration  of  de- 
tails. Success  can  be  attained  only  by  a  careful 
selection  of  particular  details  and  by  an  arrange- 
ment of  these  details  that  will  be  orderly  without 
seeming  to  be  mechanical.  In  artistic  description 
avoid  such  mechanical  details  as  "  the  northeast 
corner  of  the  room/'  "  four  feet  from  the  fireplace," 
etc.  Let  the  first  part  of  the  description  contain 
details  which  will  enable  the  reader  to  construct  a 
framework  for  the  scene;  for  example,  say,  "the 
cobbler's  shop,"  rather  than,  "the  shop."  Finally, 
use  only  the  details  that  could  be  seen  from  your 
point  of  view. 

Suggested  subjects :  A  barn  at  harvest  time ;  A  living 
room  at  home  on  a  winter's  night ;  Grandmother's  favorite 
room,  with  deep-seated  windows  and  quaint  furnishings  ; 
A  parlor  or  a  cellar  decorated  for  a  Hallowe'en  party  ;  A 
cobbler's  shop ;  A  country  store ;  A  kitchen ;  A  black- 
smith's shop ;  A  pawnshop ;  The  hold  of  a  ship ;  A  cathe- 
dral, a  church,  or  a  chapel  hall,  silent  and  awe-inspiring 
in  the  dusk  of  the  evening.  (If  you  wish,  describe  the 
nave  of  Amiens  Cathedral,  shown  in  the  frontispiece.  Try 
to  make  the  reader  feel  the  effect  of  the  great  spaces,  the 
high  Gothic  arches,  the  "  dim  religious  light,"  and  the  quiet 
brightness  of  the  choir  windows  beyond.) 


20  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

Or  describe  one  of  the  rooms  shown  on  the  page  opposite. 
The  upper  picture  shows  an  attic  room  with  colonial  furnish- 
ings in  an  old  New  England  house.  The  other  is  a  rare  photo- 
graph of  a  state  bedroom  in  an  English  castle.  If  you  wish, 
describe  both,  contrasting  the  cheerful  simplicity  of  one 
with  the  somber  elegance  of  the  other. 

LESSON  11 

Exercise :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion, 
The  Verb  :  Number,  beginning  on  page  285. 

LESSON   12 

Short  theme  assignment:  (a)  Describe  an  old 
man  so  as  to  suggest  bis  personality;  or  (6)  de- 
scribe the  picture  facing  page  22. 

Example :  — 

THE  SALVATION  ARMY  WOMAN1 

The  Salvation  Army  woman  sat  in  the  waiting  room  of 
one  of  the  railway  stations,  with  her  tambourine  upright 
upon  her  knees,  and  her  long  and  slender  fingers  inter- 
laced upon  the  upper  edge  of  the  disk  of  the  instrument. 
Her  profile,  defined  clearly  in  the  electric  light,  was  a  fine 
one:  a  slightly  retreating  forehead,  an  aquiline  nose, 
straight,  positive  lips,  not  too  thin,  —  perhaps  not  quite  thin 
enough  for  the  distinguished  forehead  and  nose,  —  a  deli- 
cately curved  chin,  and  a  full  white  neck.  The  poke  bonnet 
of  the  Army  was  entirely  becoming  to  such  a  profile.  And 
how  intently  the  eyes,  which,  in  the  uncertain  glare  of  the 
electric  light,  appeared  to  be  a  deep  gray,  gazed  forward  at 
nothing  at  all !  It  was  the  face  of  a  nun,  perhaps,  but  of  a 
nun  plus  fire  and  liberty.  With  all  her  rapt  contemplation 

1  From  The  Listener  in  the  Town,  by  Joseph  E.  Chamberlin. 
Copyright,  1896.  Published  by  Messrs.  Small,  Maynard  &  Company. 


AN  OLD  NEW  ENGLAND  BEDROOM 


THE  SPANGLED  BEDROOM  " 
Knole,  Kent 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  21 

of  no  one  knows  what,  this  Madonna  of  the  Tambourine  did 
not  so  conduct  herself  as  to  attract  attention.  She  relaxed 
her  attitude  from  time  to  time  as  if  in  a  certain  deference  to 
the  bustling  life  about  her.  She  even  passed  a  word  or  two 
with  a  stooped-shouldered  man  Salvationist  who  sat  beside 
her.  But  it  was  plain  that  her  thoughts  were  concentrated 
upon  some  theme  or  vision  of  her  brain. 

In  the  first  part  of  your  theme,  describe  the  posi- 
tion in  which  the  man  stood  while  you  observed 
him,  and  suggest  his  general  appearance  by  details 
of  size,  apparent  age,  and  neat  or  careless  attire. 
As  this  theme  is  to  be  pure  description,  details 
should  not  be  given  which  could  not  be  observed 
from  your  point  of  view;  for  instance,  traits  of 
character,  habits,  etc.,  should  not  be  mentioned. 
Abstract  expositions  of  character  will  be  written 
later.  Select  particular  details  with  the  eye  of  a 
cartoonist,  and  use  them  with  the  skill  of  an  artist 
to  produce  unity  of  impression.  Comparisons  and 
contrasts  may  be  used  to  advantage.  Try  to  de- 
scribe the  man  so  clearly  that  he  could  be  used 
later  as  a  character  in  a  story. 

Suggested  subjects:  An  old  bishop,  with  a  fine  scholarly 
face,  seated  by  a  window;  An  enthusiastic  chorister  leading 
the  village  choir ;  A  business  man,  neat  and  capable,  seated 
at  his  desk;  A  grandfather,  contentedly  seated  by  the  fire 
place,  smoking  his  evening  pipe ;  A  patient  workman  eating 
his  noonday  lunch  by  his  wheelbarrow ;  An  unhappy  hired 
man  standing  by  the  gate;  A  peddler;  A  fisherman ;  A  janitor. 

If  you  choose  to  describe  the  picture  opposite  page  22, 
imagine  that  you  came  upon  this  woman,  as  the  artist  did, 


22  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

seated  in  the  dingy  doorway.  Try  to  give  the  effect  of  her 
hard  foreign  profile,  and  the  riotous  colors  of  her  costume. 
Notice  the  details  :  the  cane,  the  broken  bowl,  and  the  hand- 
kerchief which  evidently  serves  as  a  sling  for  her  right  arm. 

LESSON  13 

Short  theme  assignment  (Descriptive-narrative 
sketch) :  Write  a  descriptive  sketch  of  the  coming 
of  night  or  of  the  coming  of  day. 

NOTE. —  The  following  is  a  similar  assignment  that  may 
be  substituted  for  the  one  above  or  used  in  addition  to  it : 
Write  a  descriptive  sketch  of  the  coming  of  a  storm,  or  of 
the  coming  and  passing  of  a  storm. 

Example :  — 

SUNSET  ON  GREAT  SALT  LAKE' 

On  another  night,  there  was  a  sunset  of  wondrous  color. 
The  sun,  a  gold  ball,  slid  into  the  lake,  leaving  a  sky  of 
peaceful  blue  in  which  rested  long,  golden  bars.  Then  the 
gold  caught  fire,  and  the  heavens  were  aflame  with  color  and 
light.  Above,  on  the  beach,  a  horn  blew  out  in  joyous  ex- 
ultant blasts.  Gradually  the  rainbow  colors  faded,  and  the 
flaming  cloud-streamers  melted  away.  At  last,  there  was 
left  a  sky  of  clear  mauve,  and  out  of  its  warm  light  the  great; 
evening  star  shone  radiant  above  the  lake.  Other  stars  came 
out  dimly  overhead.  The  dark,  strong  outline  of  the  moun- 
tain slope  cut  the  sky  in  a  line  of  singular  purity ;  crickets 
chirred .;  the  peace  of  evening  was  upon  the  earth.  A  hus£ 
fell  over  all,  and  in  the  twilight  calm  the  beautiful  old 
hymn,  "  Nearer,  my  God,  to  Thee,"  came  softly  from  the 
horn  on  the  hillside. 

lMy  Summer  in  a  Mormon  Village,  by  Florence  A.  Merriam. 
Copyright,  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


H.  G.  E.  Degas 


THE  BEGGAR 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  23 

This  theme  will  not  be  pure  description  because 
it  will  contain  the  narrative  element  of  change,  or 
action,  during  a  period  of  time  ;  however,  the  chief 
purpose  should  be  description ;  that  is,  it  should 
suggest  how  the  gradually  changing  scene  appealed 
to  the  senses  of  the  writer  daring  a  certain  period 
of  time.  It  is  difficult  to  find  a  long  piece  of  dis- 
course that  is  an  example  of  pure  description,  nar- 
ration, exposition,  or  argumentation  ;  but  if  the 
chief  purpose  be  considered,  then  mixed  types  of 
writing  may  be  called  descriptive,  narrative,  ex- 
pository, or  argumentative.  The  chief  purpose 
in  this  theme,  then,  should  be  to  direct  the  reader's 
attention  to  the  appearance  of  the  scene,  not  to 
the  action ;  therefore  it  may  be  termed  descriptive. 

This  theme  should  make  the  reader  feel  that  the 
scene  changed  gradually  during  a  period  of  time. 
Such  words  as  slowly,  gradually,  soon,  and  then  may 
be  used  to  make  the  theme  move  steadily  on.  The 
reader  should  feel  that  it  is  a  description  of  a  grad- 
ually changing  scene,  and  not  a  series  of  descriptions 
of  a  scene  as  it  appeared  at  successive  intervals. 

Suggested  subjects:  The  coming  of  a  peaceful  summer 
night  in  the  country,  with  brilliant  sky,  country  sounds,  fire- 
flies, and  stars ;  The  coming  of  a  blustering  winter  night  in 
the  city,  with  somber  sky,  chilling  wind,  confused  sights  and 
sounds,  flashing  street  lights,  snow,  and,  finally,  deserted 
streets;  The  coming  of  a  clear  autumn  night  on  the  sea, 
with  brilliant  sky,  golden  sun  reflected  in  the  sea,  darkening 
waters,  a  lighthouse  light,  and,  lastly,  moon  and  stars. 


24  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

LESSON   14 

Exercise  :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion  of 
Modifiers,  beginning  on  page  309. 

LESSON   15 

Short  theme  assignment  (Descriptive-narrative 
sketch)  :  Write  a  descriptive  sketch  about  some 
service,  entertainment,  or  ceremony  that  you  have 
attended. 

Example :  — 

THE  FRENCH  SHOW  i 

| 

The  night  was  clear  and  glittering  with  stars,  and  there 
was  a  crowd  upon  the  market-place.  They  crowded  in  gap- 
ing delight  around  the  tent  of  some  strolling  acrobats,  where 
red  and  smoking  lanterns  lighted  the  performance  that  was 
just  beginning.  Rolling  their  muscular  limbs  in  dirty  wraps, 
and  decorated  from  head  to  foot  with  tawdry  ruffles  of  fur, 
the  athletes  —  four  boyish  ruffians  with  vulgar  heads  —  were 
ranged  in  line  before  the  painted  canvas  which  represented 
their  exploits.  They  stood  there  with  their  heads  down, 
their  legs  apart,  and  their  muscular  arms  crossed  upon  their 
chests.  Near  them  the  marshal  of  the  establishment,  an 
old  sub-officer,  with  the  drooping  mustache  of  a  brandy- 
drinker,  belted  in  at  the  waist,  a  heart  of  red  cloth  on  his 
leather  breastplate,  leaned  on  a  pair  of  foils.  The  feminine 
attraction,  with  a  rose  in  her  hair,  and  a  man's  overcoat  over 
her  ballet-dancer's  dress,  protecting  her  against  the  freshness 
of  the  evening  air,  played  at  the  same  time  with  the  cymbals 
and  the  big  bass  drum  a  desperate  accompaniment  to  the 
three  measures  of  a  polka,  always  the  same,  which  were  mur- 

1From  Ten  Tales  by  Frai^ois  Coppe"e.  Copyright,  1890,  by 
Harper  &  Brothers. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  25 

dered  by  a  blind  clarinet  player  ;  and  the  ringmaster,  a 
sort  of  Hercules,  with  the  face  of  a  galley-slave,  roared  out 
his  furious  appeal  in  a  loud  voice. 

Suddenly  the  music  ceased,  and  the  crowd  broke  into 
roars  of  laughter.  The  clown  had  just  made  his  appearance. 

He  wore  the  ordinary  costume  of  his  kind,  the  short  vest 
and  many-colored  stockings  of  the  peasants  of  the  opera 
comique,  the  three  horns  turned  backward,  the  red  wig  with 
its  turned-up  queue  and  its  butterfly  on  the  end.  He  was  a 
young  man,  but  alas,  his  face,  whitened  with  flour,  was  al- 
ready seamed  with  vice.  Planting  himself  before  the  public, 
and  opening  his  mouth  in  a  silly  grin,  he  showed  bleeding 
gums  almost  devoid  of  teeth.  The  ringmaster  kicked  him 
violently  from  behind. 

"  Come  in,"  he  said,  tranquilly. 

Then  the  traditional  dialogue,  punctuated  by  slaps  in  the 
face,  began  between  the  mountebank  and  the  clown,  and  the 
entire  audience  applauded  these  souvenirs  of  the  classic 
farce,  fallen  from  the  theater  to  the  stage  of  the  mountebank, 
the  humor  of  which,  coarse  but  pungent,  seemed  a  drunken 
echo  of  the  laughter  of  Moliere.  The  clown  exerted  his  low 
talent,  throwing  out  some  low  jest,  some  immodest  pun,  to 
which  his  master,  simulating  a  prudish  indignation,  responded 
by  thumps  on  the  head.  But  the  adroit  clown  excelled  in 
the  art  of  receiving  affronts.  He  knew  to  perfection  how  to 
bend  his  body  like  a  bow  under  the  impulse  of  a  kick,  and 
having  received  on  one  cheek  a  full-armed  blow,  he  stuffed 
his  tongue  at  once  in  that  cheek  and  began  to  whine  until  a 
new  blow  passed  the  artificial  swelling  into  the  other  cheek. 
Blows  showered  on  him  as  thick  as  hail,  and  the  flour  on 
his  face  and  the  red  powder  of  his  wig,  disappearing  under 
a  shower  of  slaps,  enveloped  him  like  a  cloud.  At  last  he 
exhausted  all  his  resources  of  low  scurrility,  ridiculous  con- 
tortions, grotesque  grimaces,  pretended  aches,  falls  at  full 
length,  etc.,  and  the  ringmaster,  judging  this  gratuitous  show 


26  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

long  enough,  and  that  the  public  were  sufficiently  fascinated, 
sent  him  off  with  a  final  cuff. 

Then  the  music  began  again  with  such  violence  that  the 
painted  canvas  trembled.  The  clown,  having  seized  the  sticks 
of  a  drum  fixed  on  one  of  the  beams  of  the  scaffolding, 
mingled  a  triumphant  rataplan  with  the  bombardment  of 
the  bass  drum,  the  cracked  thunder  of  the  cymbals,  and  the 
distracted  wail  of  the  clarinet.  The  ringmaster,  roaring 
again  with  his  heavy  voice,  announced  that  the*  show  was 
about  to  begin,  and,  as  a  sign  of  defiance,  he  threw  two  or 
three  old  fencing  gloves  among  his  fellow-wrestlers.  The 
crowd  rushed  into  the  tent,  and  soon  only  a  small  group  of 
loungers  remained  in  front  of  the  deserted  stage. 

This  theme,  like  the  last  assignment,  should  be 
descriptive  in  chief  purpose,  but  with  an  element 
of  narration.  Imagine  that  your  theme  is  to  be 
read  by  persons  who  never  attended  an  entertain- 
ment or  ceremony  such  as  the  one  you  describe. 
Try  to  tell  about  it  so  accurately  and  vividly  that 
the  readers  can  imagine  exactly  how  everything 
looked,  sounded,  etc.  If  you  wish  to  do  so,  use  the 
pronoun  I  or  we. 

Suggested  subjects:  A  Quaker  church  service;  An  old- 
fashioned  prayer  meeting;  The  exercises  of  a  high  school 
graduating  class ;  My  first  circus ;  My  first  theater ;  Our 
amateur  theatrical  entertainment ;  Our  last  day  at  school ; 
A  wedding. 

LESSON   16 

Short  theme  assignment  (Descriptive-narrative 
sketch) :  Write  a  descriptive  sketch  of  a  person 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  27 

showing  the  impression  that  you  gradually  received 
during  a  period  of  time ;  for  example,  of  a  teacher 
during  the  first  recitation  period. 

Example :  — 

THE  BEAST  OF  BURDEN1 

I  was  sitting,  on  a  winter  afternoon,  in  a  second-class 
compartment  of  the  Paris  train.  There  was  one  empty  seat, 
and  presently  a  French  sailor  got  in  and  rilled  it,  carrying 
his  luggage  in  a  bundle,  —  a  heavy,  thick  young  fellow, 
bolster-like  in  his  dark  blue  clothes,  and  round  cap  with  a 
dark-red  fuzzy  ball.  He  sat  humped  forward  with  a  fist  on 
either  of  his  thighs  ;  and  his  leathery,  shaven  face,  as  of  an 
ugly  and  neglected  child,  so  motionless  that  there  seemed  no 
activity  at  all  in  his  brain.  Suddenly  he  coughed,  long, 
almost  silently,  behind  his  hand. 

The  train  started ;  we  settled  down  to  sleep  or  read,  but 
the  sailor  sat  motionless,  coughing  now  and  then  his  smoth- 
ered, wheezing  cough. 

At  Amiens,  a  collector  looked  at  our  tickets,  and  demanded 
from  the  sailor  the  difference  between  a  second  and  third  class 
fare.  He  fumbled  it  slowly,  sadly,  out  of  an  old  leather  purse. 

Again  we  started,  but  as  though  this  incident  had  broken 
up  his  stoicism,  the  sailor  stirred  and  spoke  to  me  in  French. 
He  talked  in  a  turgid,  Flemish  accent,  not  easy  to  under- 
stand, and  at  the  end  of  every  phrase  dropped  his  lower  lip  as 
though  he  had  spoken  his  last  word.  He  was  on  his  way  — 
it  seemed  —  from  Dunkerque  to  join  his  ship  at  Cherbourg; 
and  this  had  been  the  last  train  he  could  catch  to  be  in  time. 
He  had  left  his  widowed  mother  without  money,  so  that  to 
pay  this  extra  fare  seemed  terrible  to  him.  For  eighteen 
months  he  had  been  in  foreign  service  —  for  eighteen  days 
he  had  been  at  home ;  and  he  was  now  going  back,  to  serve 

1  From  A  Motley,  by  John  Galsworthy.  Copyright,  1910,  by 
Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


28  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

the  remainder  of  his  time  on  the  China  station.  His  brother 
had  been  killed  by  the  Japanese,  accidentally,  being  taken 
for  a  Russian.  His  father  had  been  drowned  off  Iceland, 
in  the  summer  fishing. 

"  I  have  a  mother.  I  am  the  only  one  at  home.  She 
does  not  have  a  cent." 

It  was  his  only  perfect  sentence,  and,  as  he  finished  it, 
he  spat.  Then,  seeing  from  the  faces  of  the  company  that 
this  was  not  the  thing  to  do,  he  smeared  it  over  with  a  slow, 
gritting  movement  of  his  foot.  Looking  up  at  me  with  his 
little,  deep-set  eyes,  he  then  said :  "  I  am  sick,"  and  slowly : 
"  Is  the  climate  of  China  bad  for  the  sick  ?  " 

I  tried  to  reassure  him,  but  he  shook  his  head,  and  after 
a  long  pause,  said  again :  "  I  have  a  mother.  I  am  the  only 
one  at  home.  She  does  not  have  a  cent."  Tell  me,  his 
eyes  seemed  to  ask,  why  are  these  things  so?  Why  have  I  a 
mother  who  depends  on  me  alone,  when  I  am  being  sent 
away  to  die  ? 

He  rubbed  his  fists  on  his  rounded  thighs,  then  rested 
them;  and  so,  humped  forward  over  his  outspread  arms, 
sat  silent,  staring  in  front  of  him  with  deep,  dark,  tiny  eyes. 
He  troubled  me  with  no  further  speech;  he  had  relieved 
his  soul.  And,  presently,  like  a  dumb,  herded  beast,  patient, 
mute,  carrying  his  load,  he  left  me  at  the  terminus ;  but  it 
was  long  before  I  lost  the  memory  of  his  face  and  of  that 
chant  of  his :  "  I  have  a  mother.  I  am  the  only  one  at 
home.  She  does  not  have  a  cent." 

The  student  is  urged  to  write  with  care.  Both 
form  and  content  should  be  as  good  as  he  can  make 
them.  Every  mark  of  punctuation  should  be  dis- 
tinct, every  word  should  be  spelled  correctly,  every 
sentence  should  be  grammatically  correct  and  rhe- 
torically effective.  If  he  makes  a  grammatical 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  29 

error,  he  should  study  carefully  the  rule  in  Part  III 
to  which  the  teacher  refers  him,  that  he  may  not 
make  the  error  a  second  time.  By  being  careful,  a 
student  can  rapidly  eliminate  his  habitual  errors. 

Do  not  make  this  theme  merely  an  account  of 
what  the  person  did :  let  it  be  descriptive  in  chief 
purpose.  It  should  show  how  your  first  impression 
gradually  grew  during  a  period  of  time,  or  how  it 
gradually  changed  during  a  period  of  time. 

Suggested  subjects:  The  impression  of  the  new  teacher 
which  you  gained  during  the  first  day  or  the  first  recitation 
period  (what  it  was  at  first  and  how  it  grew  or  changed)  ; 
The  proud,  reserved  lady  in  the  next  pew,  observed  during 
a  service  that  moved  her  greatly  ;  The  impression  of  a  per- 
son you  received  during  his  first  call ;  The  impression  of  a 
workman  which  you  got  while  you  talked  with  him ;  The 
new  minister,  observed  during  his  first  sermon  ;  The  pack 
peddler,  observed  while  he  displayed  his  wares. 

LESSON   17  t 

Long  theme  assignment  (Descriptive-narrative 
sketch) :  Write  a  descriptive  sketch  which  will 
contain  a  slight  narrative  element  of  action  during 
a  period  of  time. 

The  teacher  will  determine  when  this  theme  will  be 
due  and  how  long  it  should  be.  Four  pages  might 
be  a  good  length.  It  may  be  well  to  prepare  and  re- 
cite the  next  assignment  while  this  is  being  written. 

The  examples  given  in  the  last  two  assignments 
will  illustrate  what  this  theme  should  be.  It  should 


30  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

differ  only  in  length  from  the  short  themes  of  the 
last  three  assignments.  Though  the  theme  con- 
tains the  narrative  element  of  action  during  a 
period  of  time,  the  chief  purpose  should  be  to  sug- 
gest how  the  thing  appealed  to  the  senses  of  the 
observer.  Perhaps  the  most  important  thing  to 
note  is  that  the  scene  should  change  gradually  so 
as  to  give  the  impression  of  one  continuous  period 
of  time.  Do  not  let  the  scene  change  abruptly ; 
make  it  move  steadily  on.  Unity  of  time  is  not 
determined  by  the  length  of  the  period  of  time,  but 
by  its  oneness. 

Some  attention  must  be  given  here  to  para- 
graphing. The  paragraph  is  a  mechanical  de- 
vice to  enable  the  reader  to  pause  occasionally 
while  following  a  long  line  of  thought.  In  every 
long  descriptive  or  narrative  discourse  there  are 
places  where  the  movement  of  the  thought  changes 
slightly,—  where  the  coherence  is  not  so  close  as  at 
other  places :  these  are  the  places  for  paragraph  in- 
dentation. This  theme  might  well  have  three,  four, 
or  five  paragraphs.  The  examples  in  the  last  two 
assignments  illustrate  the  method  of  paragraphing. 

Suggested  subjects:  Any  of  the  subjects  suggested  for  the 
last  three  short  themes :  An  auction  sale ;  A  pageant  or  a 
street  carnival ;  A  fire,  from  the  time  it  was  first  seen  until 
only  the  smoldering  ruins  remained;  Our  entrance  into 
New  York  Harbor;  A  Salvation  Army  street  meeting;  A 
boat  ride  on  the  Wabash  Kiver ;  My  walk  down  Main  Street 
on  Christinas  eve ;  My  last  walk  over  the  old  farm. 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  31 

LESSON    18 

Exercise:  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion 
of  Pronouns  beginning  on  page  302. 

LESSON    19 

Short  theme  assignment  (Descriptive-expository 
sketch) :  Write  a  descriptive  sketch  of  some  place 
(such  as  a  town,  a  city,  or  a  section  of  country), 
giving  its  nature  and  usual  appearance.  Use  the 
present  tense. 

Example  .'   | 

PLAIN  VILLE 

A   Student's  Theme  j/ 

*  \JK& 

/The  tiny  town  ofJUainville  is  situated  ea^the  p&rie  lands 

of  central  mSois.  Tt  is  a  self-satisfied  little  place, — a 
world  unto  itself.  Its  streets  are  clean  and  shady,  and  its 
rows  of  tiny  cottages,  painted  blue,  or  pink,  or  even  plain 
white,  have  real  porches  and  shining  little  windows.  In 
pleasing  contrast  with  the  green  trees  are  the  whitewashed 
fences  over  which  the  women  lean,  limply  as  rag  dolls,  while 
they  discuss  subjects  domestic  and  social.  The  inhabitants 
point  with  pride  to  the  frame  schoolhouse  and  the  pretty 
church,  the  yard  of  which  is  dotted  with  white  stones.  The 
most  important  building  of  Plainville,  however,  is  the  gen- 
eral store  and  post  office,  for  every  class  and  organization  of 
Plainville  feels  the  influence  of  this  social  center :  the  aris- 
tocrats and  the  commoners,  the  educational  society  and  the 
women's  club,  the  sages  and  the  fools.  Here  the  fanner 
aristocrats  mingle  with  the  farm  hand  commoners ;  here  the 
women  talk  of  hats  and  babies  and  church  socials  while 
they  make  petty  purchases;  and  here  seated  on  various 
boxes  and  barrels  with  all  the  dignity  of  kings,  the  sages 


32  DESCRIPTIVE  WRITING 

and  the  fools  settle  questions  of  state  to  the  satisfaction  of 
all.  Plainville  is  apart  from  the  smoke  and  confusion  and 
dissention  of  other  places,  and  in  its  isolation  is  contented. 

Discourse  such  as  is  assigned  for  this  theme  is 
sometimes  called  "  generalized  description."  The 
time  is  general ;  that  is,  the  details  were  not  per- 
ceived at  a  special  time  from  a  particular  point  of 
view,  as  is  the  case  in  pure  description.  The  details 
belong  to  the  thing  at  all  times,  and  many  of  them, 
perhaps,  can  be  learned  only  by  long  experience. 
Thus,  if  we  speak  of  the  climate  of  a  place,  the  in- 
dustry of  the  people,  and  the  value  of  the  property, 
we  give  general  details  that  could  not  be  perceived 
directly  through  the  senses.  Such  general  details 
are  expository  details.  A  special  study  of  exposi- 
tion (or  explanation)  will  be  made  later,  but  it 
should  be  noted  here  that  the  present  tense  is 
usually  used  in  exposition.  The  theme,  like  the 
example,  may  contain  a  slight  narrative  element  of 
generalized  action.  Habitual,  or  generalized,  action 
should  be  expressed  by  the  attributive  verb,  not  by 
the  pure  verb  and  the  participle;  for  example,  say, 
"  The  people  assemble  at  the  store  "  :  do  not  say, 
66  are  assembled,"  or  "are  assembling." 

One  purpose  of  this  theme  is  to  illustrate  how  a 
piece  of  discourse  which  is  description  in  chief  pur- 
pose may  contain  other  kinds  of  discourse. 

Suggested  subjects  :  Grandfather's  garden;  My  home 
townj  Kenton  Swamp  j  The  Grand  Canon ;  Chinatown, 


CHAPTER  III 
NARRATIVE  WRITING 

LESSON    20 
NARRATION 

THE  nature  of  narration  has  been  indicated  in 
previous  lessons.     Like  description,  it  deals  with 

particular   persons   and   things.     Stories 

.  ,  ,  Definition 

and  histories  are  common  iorms  ot  narra- 
tion ;  and  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  words,  story  and 
history,  have  the  same  derivation,  and  originally 
meant  a  recital  of  what  occurred.  Narration  is  that 
kind  of  composition  which  relates  what  particular  per- 
sons or  things  did  during  a  particular  period  of  time. 
We  have  seen  that  it  is  not  easy  to  find  a  piece 
of  discourse  that  is  pure  description.  The  same 
is  true  of  narration.  It  is  difficult  to  find  a  story 
or  a  history  that  consists  merely  of  a  series  of  in- 
cidents ;  there  are  usually  descriptive  and  explana- 
tory details.  In  modern  fiction  description  is 
practically  a  subordinate  element ;  but  if  the  chief 
purpose  of  a  piece  of  discourse  is  to  relate  what 
was  done  by  particular  persons  or  things  during  a 
particular  period  of  time,  we  call  the  discourse 
narrative. 

'    33 


34  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

Narration,  like  description,  is  sometimes  written 
to  appeal  primarily  to  the  intellect  of  the  reader  ; 
Literary  f°r  example,  a  ship  captain  may  write  in 
Narration  ftis  ]Og  book  merely  an  account  of  the  facts 
of  a  voyage  without  an  attempt  to  make  the  account 
interesting.  A  boy's  diary  is  sometimes  kept  in  the 
same  way.  The  narrations  th  at  we  shall  write  in  this 
course,  however,  like  the  descriptions  already  writ- 
ten, will  be  literary.  They  must  be  written  so  as 
to  appeal  to  the  emotions  of  the  reader, —  to  make 
him  feel  as  we  feel  about  the  characters  and  their 
actions.  We  all  know  that  a  story  told  by  one 
person  may  seem  good,  though  it  seems  uninterest- 
ing when  told  by  another  person.  The  latter  does 
not  appeal  to  our  imagination.  The  details  that  he 
gives  seem  to  be  only  cold  facts,  and  we  suspect 
that  he,  himself,  is  not  much  interested  in  the 
story.  But  the  former  seems  to  enjoy  telling 
the  story,  making  it  interesting  to  us  by  emphasiz- 
ing the  details  that  interest  him.  In  narration,  as 
in  description,  the  author  must  have  a  definite  feel- 
ing about  what  he  is  to  tell ;  he  must  discover  the 
particular  details  in  the  characters  and  the  plot  that 
cause  him  to  feel  as  he  does ;  and  finally,  he  must 
present  those  details  so  the  reader  or  hearer  will 
feel  as  he  feels  about  the  story. 

If  one  has  a  story  to  tell,  he  must  at  once  choose 
the  narrator  of  the  story.  This  is  called  point  of 
view,  and  is  that  which  determines  the  emotional 


THE   ELEMENTS  OF  NARRATION 


35 


tone  of  the  story.  Point  of  view  in  narration  is  the 
mental  attitude  of  the  one  who  is  represented  as  the 
narrator  of  the  story.  The  author  may  Narratjve 
make  the  story  a  reminiscence  by  using  Point  of 
the  point  of  view  of  the  chief  character 
or  the  point  of  view  of  a  minor  character.  The 
author,  himself,  is  represented  as  the  chief  character 
or  the  minor  character  in  such  stories,  and  he  gives 
emotional  tone  to  the  story  by  suggesting  to  the 
reader  how  he  felt  and  thought  when  the  incidents 
occurred.  The  point  of  view  of  a  character  who 
takes  no  part  in  the  action  is  sometimes  used,  as 
when  a  sailor  or  a  soldier  is  represented  as  the 
narrator  of  a  story  not  about  himself.  This  is  a 
difficult  point  of  view  to  use,  for  it  is  hard  for  an 
author  to  know  how  another  person  would  think 
and  feel  and  talk.  A  fourth  point  of  view  is  called 
the  impersonal  point  of  view.  When  an  author 
uses  this  form  he  tells  the  story  without  any  nar- 
rator. The  reader  assumes  that  the  author  knew 
what  the  characters  did  and  how  the  chief  character 
thought  and  felt.  This  point  of  view  is  usually  the 
best  one  for  the  unskilled  writer.  It  is  the  point  of 
view  in  the  descriptive  sketch,  "  The  Two  Clowns." 

THE   ELEMENTS    OF   NARRATION 

The  characters  of  a  narrative  are  the  actors  who 
are  the  subject  of  the  narrative.  Narrative  might 
be  written  about  inanimate  objects;  but  in  such 


36  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

narrative  the  character  element  would  be  of  no  im- 
portance, for  there  would  be  no  real  personality  to 
present.     In  most  narrative  that  is  worth 

Characters    J 

reading,  the  characters  are  human  beings, 
and  their  personality  helps  the  reader  to  under- 
stand why  the  action  took  place.  In  most  novels 
and  short  stories,  the  character  element  is  more  im- 
portant than  any  other.  The  student's  narrative 
themes  should  have  human  beings  for 'characters. 
If  the  student  wishes,  he  may  use  one  set  of  char- 
acters in  several  of  his  stories.  An  author  often 
writes  a  series  of  stories  using  the  same  characters 
in  different  situations. 

Plot  is  the  second  element  of  narration.  The 
plot  of  a  narrative  is  the  action  ;  that  is,  the  things 
that  happened.  Often  the  word  plot  is 
used  to  imply  a  brief  summary  of  the 
action.  The  plot  of  a  good  story  may  be  given 
briefly  in  a  single  compound  sentence,  called  the 
topic  sentence,  or  the  plot  sentence  ;  thus,  "  I  cheated 
in  an  examination  and  my  teacher  forgave  me." 
The  first  clause  of  such  a  topic  sentence  may  be 
developed  into  the  first  part  of  the  story ;  the  last 
clause  into  the  conclusion  of  the  story.  This  kind 
of  a  sentence  plot  may  be  enlarged  by  the  addition 
of  other  details  of  the  action.  The  plot  is  complete 
when  it  contains  all  of  the  incidents.  If  descrip- 
tive and  explanatory  details  are  added  to  this 
complete  plot,  the  result  is  the  finished  story. 


THE  ELEMENTS  OF  NARRATION  37 

The  following  is  a  plot  for  a  student's  theme, 
given  somewhat  in  detail :  — 


MISS    TOLSEN'S    PROBLEM 

1.  I  could  not  think  of  the  answer  to  a  question  in  an 
examination. 

2.  I  was  anxious  to  answer  all  of  the  questions,  for  Tom 
had  promised  me  a  dollar  if  I  made  the  highest  mark  in  my 
class. 

3.  By  chance  I  saw  the  answer  on  a  pupil's  paper  and 
copied  it. 

4.  After  I  had  given  the  paper  to  the  teacher,  Miss  Tol- 
sen,  I  realized  for  the  first  time  what  a  wicked  thing  I  had 
done. 

5.  I  went  to  her  and  confessed. 

6.  She  was  pained  to  learn  what  I  had  done,  for  it  was 
the  rule  that  a  pupil  who  copied  should  be  suspended  from 
school. 

7.  She  questioned  me  and  learned  why  I  had  cheated. 

8.  She  decided  not  to  punish  me  according  to  the  rule, 
but  to  forgive  me  and  to  trust  me. 

NOTE.  —  It  may  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  have  the  students 
study  a  story  and  prepare  an  outline  of  the  plot  similar  to 
the  one  given  above. 

So  far  we  have  spo~ken  of  two  elements  of  narra- 
tion, —  character  and  plot.  We  have  said  that  the 
author  should  handle  these  so  as  to  make 

betting  or 

the  reader  feel  as  he,  himself,  feels  about          Back- 
them.    This  is  sometimes  accomplished  by 
the  use  of  a  third  element,  which  is  called  the  setting, 
or  the  background  of  descriptive  details.     For  ex- 


38  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

ample,  the  emotional  tone  of  a  simple  story  of  coun- 
try life  may  be  heightened  by  descriptions  of  simple 
country  scenes.  Such  a  setting  does  for  a  story 
about  what  stage  scenery  does  for  a  drama  when 
it  is  acted.  The  literary  device  of  making  nature 
sympathize  with  the  mood  of  the  story  is  called  "  pa- 
thetic fallacy."  The  term,  which  originated  with 
Ruskin,  is  misleading,  for  such  a  use  of  nature  is 
a  fallacy  only  when  it  seems  artificial.  It  is  natural 
for  us  to  see  the  sunshine  when  we  are  happy,  and 
it  seems  natural  that  there  should  be  a  great  storm 
when  Shakespeare's  King  Lear  is  mad.  The  student 
is  cautioned  not  to  use  description,  either  of  nature 
or  of  characters,  unless  it  helps  to  make  the  story 
accomplish  the  purpose  which  he  wishes  it  to 
accomplish. 

Success  in  narration  is  dependent  on  an  observ- 
ance of  the  laws  of  unity,  proportion,  proper  ar- 
General  rangement,  and  coherence.  The  story 
Principles  should  have  unity.  An  unskillful  nar- 
rator sometimes  spoils  a  story  by  giving  details 
not  necessary  to  show  why  the  story  ends  as  it 
does.  The  parts  should  have  proper  proportion. 
The  first  part  of  a  story  should  not  be  given  in 
careful  detail,  and  later  parts  so  briefly  that  im- 
portant incidents  are  omitted.  The  arrangement 
of  the  incidents  is  also  important.  The  first  part 
of  a  good  modern  story  usually  gives  the  chief 
character,  tells  the  situation  in  which  he  is  placed, 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  39 

and  gives  the  emotional  tone  of  the  story.  Each 
incident  that  follows  should  be  one  step  forward 
toward  the  end  of  the  story.  If  in  the  narrative  it 
is  necessary  to  refer  briefly  to  an  earlier  action,  use 
the  past  perfect  tense ;  thus,  "  Tom  had  promised 
me  a  dollar."  The  importance  of  arranging  in- 
cidents so  as  to  make  the  narrative  move  steadily 
on,  cannot  be  overemphasized.  Finally,  the  law 
of  coherence  requires  that  the  narrator  should  not 
pass  abruptly  from  one  part  of  the  story  to  another. 
He  should  show  the  relation  between  the  parts  and 
make  the  narrative  move  smoothly. 

LESSON   21 

Short  theme  assignment  :  Write  an  account  of 
an  experience  that  you  once  had  in  school.  Let 
the  theme  show  how  you  felt  when  the  incident 
occurred.  Use  the  pronoun  /  or  we. 

Example :  — 

CAUGHT 

A  Student's  Theme 

Our  teacher,  Miss  Ream,  was  a  stooped  little  woman  who 
wore  glasses  and  always  tiptoed  round  the  room  hunting  for 
trouble.  One  day  she  was  gliding  about  from  desk  to  desk 
grading  copy  books.  I  kept  my  eye  011  her  for  a  time,  but 
finally,  as  I  glanced  around  the  room  she  was  nowhere  to  be 
seen.  I  supposed  of  course  that  she  had  stepped  into  the 
hall,  so  I  arose  and,  in  a  voice  loud  enough  for  all  those 
about  me  to  hear,  said,  "  Where's  Granny  ?  " 


40  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

Just  as  I  uttered  the  words  I  turned  my  head  and  saw 
her  standing  at  my  left  ready  to  grade  my  copy  book.  My 
face  turned  crimson  and  great  drops  of  perspiration  stood 
upon  my  forehead,  but  she  only  smiled  down  upon  me  and 
said,  "  Is  it  too  warm  in  the  room  for  you,  my  dear  ?  " 

Since  the  purpose  of  literature  is  not  to  give 
facts,  but  to  give  truths,  it  is  not  essential  that  these 
reminiscences  should  hold  strictly  to  facts.  It  is 
essential  that  they  should  show  convincingly  how  a 
person  may  think  and  feel.  However,  you  are 
most  .likely  to  write  a  theme  that  will  seem  true 
to  life  if  you  base  the  story  upon  an  experience 
that  made  a  definite  impression  upon  you.  Use 
your  imagination  to  change  the  facts  so  that  the 
story  will  give  the  reader  the  impression  of  child- 
hood which  you  feel  to  be  true. 

Do  not  make  hard  work  for  yourself  by  trying 
to  find  unusual  experiences.  The  homely  incidents 
of  schooldays  and  childhood  are  good  material  if 
they  are  colored  with  the  emotions  of  schooldays 
and  childhood.  The  well  deserved  punishment,  The 
embarrassing  accident,  TJie  defeated  attempt,  The 
undeserved  condemnation,  The  hard-earned  triumph, 
The  sorrow  for  a  departing  comrade,  The  regret  that 
came  with  the  last  day  of  school,  —  these  and  similar 
subjects  are  of  interest  to  every  one  if  they  are  re- 
produced in  their  early  simplicity  and  seriousness. 
Life  is  made  up  of  such  experiences,  and  art  has  no 
better  material  with  which  to  work. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  4! 

You  will  note  that  the  point  of  view  in  these 
themes  should  be  that  of  the  chief  character  or 
that  of  a  minor  character. 

Suggested  sentence  plots :  We  had  a  valentine  box,  and  I 
was  delighted  with  the  red  and  yellow  valentine  that  I  car- 
ried home ;  I  was  ashamed  of  my  red  sunbonnet,  but  when  my 
teacher  said  it  was  pretty  and  sensible  I  was  proud  of  it ; 
We  went  coasting  at  noon  and  returned  late  for  school ;  I  had 
thought  it  would  be  a  pleasure  to  move  to  a  distant  state,  but 
when  the  time  came  to  go  I  was  sad ;  I  gave  a  penny  to  my 
teacher  and  was  delighted  by  her  expression  of  pleasure  ;  I 
whispered  to  a  little  girl  and  had  to  sit  with  her ;  I  made  a 
cornstalk  fiddle  and  my  teacher  compelled  me  to  play  on  it. 

LESSON  22 

Exercise:  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion, 
The  Verb  :  Miscellaneous,  beginning  on  page  297. 

LESSON   23 

Short  theme  assignment :  Write  a  reminiscence 
based  on  some  incident  in  your  experience. 

Example :  — 

THE  STONE  WHARF  1 

There  was  a  salt-marsh  that  bounded  part  of  the  mill- 
pond,  on  the  edge  of  which,  at  high  water,  we  used  to 
stand  to  fish  for  minnows.  By  much  trampling  we  had 
made  it  a  quagmire.  My  proposal  was  to  build  a  wharf 
there,  fit  for  us  to  stand  upon,  and  I  showed  my  com- 

1  From  Autobiography,  by  Benjamin  Franklin.  Published  by 
Ginn  and  Company, 


42  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

rades  a  large  heap  of  stones,  which  were  intended  for  a 
new  house  near  the  marsh,  and  which  would  very  well  suit 
our  purpose.  Accordingly,  in  the  evening,  when  the  work- 
men were  gone,  I  assembled  a  number  of  my  playfellows, 
and  working  with  them  diligently  like  so  many  emmets, 
sometimes  two  or  three  to  a  stone,  we  brought  them  all 
away  and  built  our  little  wharf.  The  next  morning  the 
workmen  were  surprised  at  missing  the  stones,  which  were 
found  in  our  wharf.  Inquiry  was  made  after  the  removers. 
We  were  discovered  and  complained  of.  Several  of  us  were 
corrected  by  our  fathers;  and,  though  I  pleaded  the  use- 
fulness of  the  work,  mine  convinced  me  that  nothing  was 
useful  which  was  not  honest. 

Before  writing  your  theme  you  will  do  well  to 
read  again  the  discussion  in  the  last  lesson,  for 
this  theme  is  to  be  like  the  one  assigned  in  that 
lesson  except  that  this  reminiscence  need  not  be 
one  of  schooldays. 

Suggested  sentence  plots :  I  earned  the  money  to  buy  a 
pet  rabbit  and  proudly  carried  him  home  in  my  arms ;  We 
were  locked  in  while  playing  in  the  attic  and  grandfather 
came  to  our  rescue ;  I  ran  away  to  go  fishing  and  fell  into 
the  water ;  I  lost  my  nickel  but  the  conductor  did  not  put 
me  off  the  car ;  We  planted  a  penny  but  it  would  not  grow ; 
I  dissected  my  doll  and  discovered  that  it  could  not  be  put 
together  again;  We  drove  the  kittens  as  race  horses  and 
grandfather  rebuked  us ;  I  ran  away  to  the  little  circus 
one  stormy  night  and  the  wind  blew  the  tent  down  on  me. 

LESSON   24 

Short  theme  assignment :  Write  a  reminiscence, 
one  and  a  half  or  two  pages  in  length,  in  which 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  43 

there  will  be  direct  discourse.     Use  the  pronoun  / 
or  we. 

Example :  — 

THE   SIEGE  OF  THE  PSEUDO  TOOTH 

A  Student's  Theme 

I  was  jealous  because  Elizabeth  Aim  and  Mary  Ellen  had 
new  ribbons  and  shoes  and  I  had  received  nothing.  While 
I  was  sulking  in  the  playroom,  the  door  opened  and  Eliza- 
beth Ann  stuck  her  head  in. 

"  I  say,  John,"  she  said  coquettishly,  "  come  out  and  play 
with  us." 

"  What'er  you  going  to  play  ?  "  I  demanded  gruffly,  with- 
out looking  at  her. 

"  We're  going  to  have  a  tea  party,  and  you're  to  be  my 
beau,  and  Mary  Ellen  is  to  be  the  chaperon." 

"  What'er  you  going  to  have  to  eat  ?  "  I  asked. 

"  Crackers  and  water,"  she  responded. 

"  People  don't  have  crackers  and  water  at  tea  parties,"  I 
remarked  sarcastically. 

"Well,  I  guess  we  can  imagine,  can't  we?"  retorted 
Elizabeth,  her  blue  eyes  snapping  and  her  black  braids 
sticking  out  a  trifle  stiffer.  "  Are  you  going  to  come  ?  " 

"  Aw,  go  on  ! "  I  said.  "  Girls  are  too  tame  to  play  with. 
I'm  going  to  read  'Treasure  Island.'" 

"  We  always  play  pirate  with  you,"  she  said  frostily. 
"  We  won't  the  next  time." 

I  had  not  forgotten  the  new  ribbons  and  shoes,  so  I  rolled 
my  gum  to  one  side  of  my  mouth  and,  turning  suddenly  on 
her,  growled  out,  "  Can't  you  see  I've  got  the  toothache  ? 
A  fellow  can't  eat  when  he's  got  the  toothache,  can  he  ?  " 

"  Oh  !  "  retorted  Elizabeth,  "  why  didn't  you  say  that  in 
the  first  place ! "  and  she  slammed  the  door  and  disap- 
peared. 


44  NARRATIVE   WRITING 

After  she  was  gone  I  began  to  feel  a  little  sorry.  After 
all,  it  was  rather  dull  up  there  all  by  myself.  They  were 
playing  directly  under  the  window,  so  I  went  to  it  and 
looked  out.  And  what  did  I  see  !  Instead  of  crackers  and 
water,  there  were  pink-iced  cakes,  steaming  cocoa,  and  pep- 
permints. I  felt  like  bumping  rn^y  head  against  the  wall. 
Finally  I  resolved  to  go  down  and  stroll  by  them  in  the  hope 
that  they  might  invite  me  to  join  them. 

But  as  I  approached,  a  cunning  light  flashed  up  in  Eliza- 
beth Ann's  eyes,  and  she  said  knowingly,  "  Aren't  you  sorry, 
John,  that  you've  got  the  toothache  ?  •  You  know,  a  fellow 
can't  eat  when  he  has  the  toothache." 

I  saw  that  my  scheme  had  failed,  so  I  pretended  not  to 
hear  her  and  walked  by,  whistling  and  trying  to  look  un- 
concerned. But  I  resolved  that  next  time  I  would  locate 
my  pain  more  judiciously. 

Before  writing  this  theme,  read  again  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  punctuation  of  direct  quotations, 
(Rule  18).  It  will  also  be  well  to  examine  the 
punctuation  and  paragraphing  of  direct  discourse 
in  any  well  printed  novel. 

Editors  usually  urge  their  contributors  to  use 
direct  discourse  in  fiction.  If  it  is  successfully 
handled  it  gives  vividness  to  the  characters  and 
seems  to  add  action  to  the  story.  In  a  story,  as  in 
real  life,  we  often  want  to  hear  a  person  talk  before 
we  form  a  definite  opinion  of  him.  It  takes  close 
observation  to  detect  the  particular  details  that 
make  one  person's  language  differ  from  that  of 
another,  and  it  takes  thought  and  imagination  to 
write  narration  in  which  the  characters  will  think 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  45 

and  speak  in  a  way  appropriate  to  them.  Do  not 
choose  characters  that  use  bad  English,  except,  per- 
haps, in  a  few  characteristic  expressions. 

Suggested  sentence  plots:  We  picked  the  goslings,  and 
grandfather  explained  the  difference  between  goslings  and 
geese ;  I  wore  a  borrowed  dress  and  had  reason  to  regret 
that  I  did  so ;  We  stole  the  neighbor  boy's  pup  and  mother 
compelled  ns  to  return  it;  I  played  doctor  and  gave  so 
much  medicine  that  the  real  doctor  had  to  be  called. 

Suggested  titles:  The  Bee-Hive  Tragedy;  The  Bird 
Burial ;  The  New  Ax ;  Playing  Visitor. 

LESSON  25 

Exercise:  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion 
of  the  coordination  and  the  subordination  of 
thoughts,  beginning  on  page  316. 

LESSON   26 

Short  theme  assignment :  Write  a  theme  of  any 
kind  that  has  been  assigned ;  that  is,  a  description 
on  a  subject  of  your  own  choosing,  a  descriptive 
sketch,  or  a  reminiscence. 

LESSON   27 

Long  theme  assignment  :  Write  a  reminiscence. 
Use  the  pronoun  /  or  we. 

NOTE.  —  The  teacher  will  decide  how  long  the  theme 
should  be  and  when  it  will  be  due.  Four  or  five  pages  might 
be  a  good  length  for  a  high  school  theme.  It  may  be  well  to 
prepare  the  next  assignment  while  this  theme  is  being 
written. 


46  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

This  theme  may  be  written  with  or  without  di- 
rect discourse.  It  should  be  similar  in  style  to  the 
short  reminiscences  although  its  greater  length 
will  demand  a  more  complicated  plot.  The  theme 
should  not  be  a  series  of  incidents  connected  only 
by  the  time  of  their  occurrence  ;  for  example,  the 
description  of  a  picnic  or  of  a  journey  should  not 
be  used,  for  it  would  form  only  a  rambling  chrono- 
logical narrative,  not  a  unified  story. 

Like  the  short  reminiscences,  the  story  should  be 
the  development  of  a  sentence  plot.  The  first  part 
should  introduce  the  characters  and  show  their  situa- 
tion at  the  beginning  of  the  action.  The  common 
error  in  students'  themes  is  that  they  do  not  move  for- 
ward. A  student  often  begins  in  the  middle  of  the 
story  and  then  tells  what  happened  previous  to  that 
time.  The  student  should  start  at  the  beginning  of 
the  action  and  then  make  the  story  move  on  steadily 
to  the  end.  If  it  is  necessary  to  refer  briefly  to 
previous  action  he  should  use  the  past  perfect  tense. 

The  story  should  not  be  padded  with  unnecessary 
details.  Description  is  good  in  a  story  only  when 
used  as  a  setting  or  background  to  explain  the  plot  or 
to  emphasize  the  emotional  tone  of  the  story.  Of 
course  the  characters  should  demand  and  hold  our 
interest  and  sympathy.  It  is  best  to  omit  both  in- 
troduction and  conclusion ;  modern  story  writers 
plunge  at  once  into  the  action,  ending  the  story 
when  the  action  ends. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  47 

Suggested  sentence  plots:  I  played  sick  and  had  to  pay 
the  doctor's  bill ;  I  earned  an  admission  ticket  to  the  circus 
and  did  not  get  my  ticket ;  I  ran  away  from  grandmother 
and  returned  in  disgrace;  I  visited  the  farm  for  the  last 
time  and  realized  how  much  I  loved  the  old  place  ;  I  escaped 
from  the  room  to  which  mother  had  sent  me  but  I  returned 
to  tell  her  what  I  had  done ;  Grandfather  offered  us  the  red 
calf  if  we  would  do  the  chores  and  we  got  the  calf  though 
we  did  not  earn  it. 

Suggested  titles :  The  New  Boots ;  Stolen  Letters ;  The 
New  Red  Wagon  ;  The  Rebellion  in  Number  Six ;  Being  the 
Leading  Lady ;  My  First  Beau  ;  The  Escape  of  the  Prisoner ; 
The  Lost  Rabbit. 

LESSON  28 

Exercise :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion 
of  the  coordination  and  the  subordination  of 
thought  elements,  beginning  on  page  323. 

LESSON   29 

Short  theme  assignment:  Write  a  reminiscence 
using  the  pronoun  you  with  the  significance  of  the 
pronoun  /. 

Example :  — 

THE    GUMMY-GUM  ' 

When  your  insides  said  it  would  be  a  long  time  before 
dinner,  and  your  mouth  watered,  and  you  stood  on  a  chair 
by  the  pantry  shelf  with  your  hand  on  a  brown  jar,  and 
when  Lizabeth  found  you  there,  you  could  tell  by  just  look- 

1  From  In  the  Morning  Glow,  by  Roy  Rolfe  Gilson.  Copyright, 
1902,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


48  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

ing  at  her  face  that  she  was  very  good  that  day,  and  that 
she  loved  Mother  better  than  she  did  you.  So  you  knew 
without  even  thinking  about  it  that  you  were  very  bad,  and 
you  did  not  love  anybody  at  all,  and  your  heart  quaked 
within  you  at  Lizabeth's  sanctity.  But  there  was  a  last 
resort. 

"Lizabeth,  if  you  tell," — you  mumbled  awfully,  point- 
ing at  her  an  uncanny  forefinger  dripping  preserves  —  "  if  you 
tell,  a  great  big  black  Gummy-gum'll  get  you  when  it's  dark, 
and  he'll  pick  out  your  eyes  and  gnaw  your  ears  off,  and 
he'll  keep  one  paw  over  your  mouth,  so  you  can't  holler,  and 
when  the  blood  comes  —  " 

Lizabeth  quailed  before  you.     She  began  to  cry. 

"You  won't  tell,  will  you?"  you  demanded,  fiercely, 
making  eyes  like  a  Gummy-gum  and  showing  your  white 
teeth. 

"No-o-o,"  wailed  Lizabeth. 

"  Well,  stop  crying,  then,"  you  commanded,  sucking  your 
sirupy  fingers. 

"  If  you  cry,  the  Gumrny-gum'll  come  and  get  you 
now  !  " 

Lizabeth  looked  fearfully  over  her  shoulder  and  stopped. 
By  that  time  your  fingers  were  all  sucked,  and  the  cover 
was  back  on  the  jar,  and  you  were  saved.  But  that  night 
when  Mother  and  Father  came  home,  you  watched  Lizabeth, 
and  lest  she  should  forget,  you  made  the  eyes  of  a  Gummy- 
gum,  when  no  one  but  Lizabeth  saw.  Mother  tucked  you 
both  into  bed  and  kissed  you  and  put  out  the  light.  Then 
Lizabeth  whimpered. 

"  Why,  Lizabeth,"  said  Mother  from  the  dark. 

Quick  as  a  flash  you  snuggled  up  to  Lizabeth's  side. 

"The  Gummy-gum'll  get  you  if  you  don't  stop,"  you 
whispered,  warningly — but  with  one  dismal  wail  Lizabeth 
was  out  of  bed  and  in  Mother's  arms.  Then  you  knew  all 
was  over. 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  49 

In  this  example  the  author  uses  the  pronoun  you 
with  the  significance  of  the  pronoun  /;  that  is,  he 
refers  to  an  incident,  real  or  imaginary,  in  his  own 
experience.  Though  he  says  "  you,"  he  means  "I." 
The  reminiscences  of  previous  lessons  could  be 
changed  to  this  form  by  the  substitution  of  you  for 
/  or  we. 

Suggested  sentence  plots:  You  broke  mother's  blue  pitcher 
and  tried  unsuccessfully  to  repair  it ;  You  baked  a  cake  for 
father  and  he  did  not  like  it ;  You  traded  knives  and  were 
not  satisfied  with  the  one  you  got ;  You  made  war  on  the 
geese  and  had  to  call  on  grandfather  for  reinforcements. 

LESSON   30 

Short  theme  assignment :  Write  a  story  about 
one  page  in  length.  Use  the  impersonal  point  of 
view. 

Example :  — 

THE    SHADOW   OF   A   TRAGEDY » 

The  screw  was  loose  which  secured  the  iron  foot  of 
Emmy  Lou's  desk  to  the  floor.  Now  the  front  of  one  desk 
formed  the  seat  to  the  next. 

Muscles,  even  in  the  atmosphere  of  a  Miss  Lizzie's  rigid 
discipline,  sometimes  rebel.  The  little  girl  sitting  in  front 
of  Emmy  Lou  was  given  to  spasmodic  changes  of  posture, 
causing  unexpected  upheavals  of  Emmy  Lou's  desk. 

On  one  of  these  occasions  Emmy  Lou's  ink  bottle  went 

1  From  Emmy  Lou,  by  George  Madden  Martin.  Copyright,  1902, 
by  S.  S.  McClure  Company.  Published  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Com- 
pany. 


50  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

over.  It  was  copy  book  hour.  That  one's  apron,  beautiful 
with  much  fine  ruffling,  should  be  ruined,  was  a  small  mat- 
ter when  one's  trial  paper  had  been  straight  in  the  path  of 
the  flood.  Neither  was  Emmy  Lou's  condition  of  digital 
helplessness  to  be  thought  of,  although  it  did  seem  as  if  all 
great  Neptune's  ocean  and  more  might  be  needed  to  make 
those  little  fingers  white  again.  Sponges,  slate  rags,  and 
neighborly  solicitude  did  what  they  could.  But  the  trial 
paper  was  steeped  indelibly  past  redemption. 

Still  not  a  word  from  Miss  Lizzie.  Only  a  cold  and  pro- 
longed survey  of  the  scene,  only  an  entire  suspension  of  ac- 
tion in  the  Fourth  Reader  room  while  Miss  Lizzie  waited. 

At  last  Emmy  Lou  was  ready  to  resume  work.  She  raised 
a  timid  and  deep-dyed  hand,  and  made  known  her  need. 

"  Please,  I  have  no  trial  paper." 

Miss  Lizzie's  lips  unclosed.  Had  she  waited  for  this  ? 
"  Then,"  said  Miss  Lizzie,  "  you  will  stay  after  school." 

Emmy  Lou's  heart  burned  and  the  color  slowly  left  her 
cheeks. 

It  was  something  besides  Emmy  Lou  that  looked  straight 
out  of  Emmy  Lou's  eyes  at  Miss  Lizzie.  It  was  Judgment. 

Miss  Lizzie  was  not  fair. 

Emmy  Lou  did  not  reach  home  until  dinner  was  long 
over.  She  had  first  to  cover  four  slips  of  trial  paper  and 
half  a  page  in  her  book  with  upward  strokes  fine  and  hair- 
like,  and  downward  strokes  black  and  heavy.  Emmy  Lou 
ate  her  dinner  alone. 

At  supper  she  spoke.  Emmy  Lou  generally  spoke  con- 
clusions and,  unless  pressed,  did  not  enter  into  the  processes 
of  her  reasoning. 

"  I  don't  want  to  go  to  school  any  more." 

Point  of  view  is  discussed  in  Lesson  20. 
The  reminiscence  is  a  story  from  the  point  of 
view  of  one  of  the  characters  in  the  story.     In  this 


Edouard  Manet 


SOAPBUBBLES 


EXERCISE:  TENSE  51 

theme,  the  student,  instead  of  saying  "  I "  or  "  we" 
or  "you,"  will  say  "  John,"  «  Mary,"  "he,"  "  she," 
etc. ;  that  is,  he  will  use  the  impersonal  point  of  view. 
This  theme  should  not  be  anecdotal  in  character. 
Anecdotes  usually  end  in  some  witty  saying  or  un- 
expected action.  This  theme  should  contain  a  uni- 
fied plot  which  will  end  in  a  logical  and  expected 
action.  You  may  find  it  easier  to  use  a  personal 
experience  as  material,  developing  it  in  the  form  of 
a  reminiscence  and  then  substituting  a  name,  such 
as  John,  or  Mary,  for  the  pronoun  /. 

Suggested  sentence  plots :  Jimmy  was  punished  in  school 
and  little  sister  did  not  tell ;  Elizabeth  and  Sue,  in  fancy 
costume,  called  on  grandmother,  and  unexpectedly  met 
mother ;  Jimmy  had  a  longing  for  watermelon  and  encoun- 
tered the  farmer  in  the  patch;  John  took  Mary  with  him 
when  he  went  fishing  and  she  let  the  fish  escape ;  May  stole 
a  Christmas  card  that  she  might  have  a  present  for  her 
teacher,  and  later  she  asked  that  the  card  be  given  back 
because  it  was  stolen. 

Or  write  a  story  about  the  picture  on  the  opposite  page. 
Make  up  your  own  plot  or  use  the  following  :  Peter,  deep  in 
reverie,  was  blowing  soap  bubbles  on  the  little  stone  balcony 
outside  his  father's  studio ;  suddenly  he  was  startled  by  an 
exclamation  from  the  street  below:  one  of  his  bubbles  had 
bounded  merrily  down,  only  to  burst  on  the  dignified  nose 
of  the  mayor. 

LESSON  31 

Exercise:  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion 
of  Tense,  beginning  on  page  290. 


52  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

LESSON   32 

Short  theme  assignment  :  Write  a  theme  of  any 
kind  that  has  been  assigned. 

LESSON   33 

Short  theme  assignment  :  Write  a  short  story 
using  the  impersonal  point  of  view.  Use  direct 
discourse. 


THE   SWEET  FLAG  1 

Towards  evening  once  as  John  was  going  along  the  road 
home  with  some  stalks  of  sweet-flag  in  his  hand,  he  met  a 
carriage,  which  stopped  opposite  to  him  ;  he  also  stopped 
and  bowed,  as  country  boys  used  to  bow  in  John's  day.  A 
lady  leaned  from  the  carriage,  and  said, 

"  What  have  you,  little  boy  ?  " 

She  seemed  to  be  the  most  beautiful  woman  John  had 
ever  seen  ;  with  light  hair,  dark,  tender  eyes,  and  a  sweet 
smile.  There  was  that  in  her  gracious  mien  and  in  her 
dress  which  reminded  John  of  the  beautiful  castle  ladies, 
with  whom  he  was  well  acquainted  in  books.  He  felt  that 
he  knew  her  at  once,  and  he  also  seemed  to  be  a  sort  of 
young  prince  himself,  though  he  did  not  look  much  like  one. 
But  of  his  own  appearance  he  thought  not  at  all,  as  he  replied 
to  the  lady's  question,  without  the  least  embarrassment, 

"  It's  sweet-flag  stalk  ;  would  you  like  some  ?  " 

"  Indeed,  I  should  like  to  taste  it,"  said  the  lady,  with  a 
most  winning  smile.  "  I  used  to  be  very  fond  of  it  when  I 
was  a  little  girl." 

1  From  Being  a  Boy,  by  Charles  Dudley  Warner.  Copyright, 
1877.  Published  by  Houghton  Mifflin  Company. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  53 

John  was  delighted  that  the  lady  should  like  sweet-flag, 
and  that  she  was  pleased  to  accept  it  from  him.  He  thought 
himself  that  it  was  about  the  best  thing  to  eat  he  knew. 
He  handed  up  a  large  bunch  of  it.  The  lady  took  two  or 
three  stalks,  and  when  she  was  about  to  return  the  rest, 
John  said, 

"  Please  keep  it  all,  ma'am.  I  can  get  lots  more.  I  know 
where  it's  ever  so  thick." 

"  Thank  you,  thank  you,"  said  the  lady ;  and  as  the  car- 
riage started  she  reached  out  her  hand  to  John.  He  did  not 
understand  the  motion,  until  he  saw  a  cent  drop  in  the  road 
at  his  feet.  Instantly  all  his  illusion  and  his  pleasure  van- 
ished. Something  like  tears  were  in  his  eyes  as  he  shouted, 

"  I  don't  want  your  cent.     I  don't  sell  flag ! " 

John  was  mortified.  "  I  suppose,"  he  said,  "  she  thought 
I  was  a  sort  of  beggar  boy.  To  think  of  selling  flag  ! " 

This  theme  should  be  like  the  one  assigned  in 
Lesson  30,  except  that  direct  discourse  should  be 
used.  If  you  can  imagine  your  characters  clearly 
enough  to  tell  how  they  would  think  and  talk,  you 
can  make  your  stories  more  effective  with  direct 
than  indirect  discourse.  Do  not  write  dialect 
stories,  and  never  allow  the  characters  to  use  bad 
English,  except  in  a  few  characteristic  expressions. 

Suggested  sentence  plots :  George  and  Will  ruined  mother's 
flower  garden  when  they  played  war  and  grandfather  helped 
them  to  repair  the  damage;  Clara  and  Edith  made  a  rag 
dummy  with  which  to  frighten  grandfather,  but  they  did 
not  frighten  him ;  The  twins'  goat  got  into  the  old  colored 
man's  garden  and  they  had  to  pay  damages;  Jimmie  re- 
turned the  roses  which  he  had  stolen  from  Aunt  Betsy  when 
George  told  him  she  wanted  them  for  her  sick  father,  and 


54  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

she  called  him  a  thief  and  gave  him  a  doughnut ;  Mary  and 
John  tried  to  cheat  the  ragman,  but  they  failed. 

LESSON  34 

Exercise :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion 
of  Definitions  in  Diction,  beginning  on  page  335. 

LESSON   35 

Short  theme  assignment  (Narrative-expository 
sketch) :  Write  a  generalized  reminiscence  (real  or 
imaginary)  which  will  show  how  you  were  enter- 
tained when  you  were  a  child.  If  you  wish,  you 
may  use  the  pronoun  you  with  the  significance  of 
the  pronoun  /  or  we. 

Example :  — 

IN  GRANDMOTHER'S  LAP  1 

Grandmother's  Sunday  lap  was  not  so  fine  as  her  other 
ones  to  lie  in.  Her  Monday  lap,  for  instance,  was  soft  and 
gray,  and  there  were  no  texts  to  disturb  your  reveries. 
Then  Grandmother  would  stop  her  knitting  to  pinch  your 
cheek  and  say,  "  You  don't  love  Grandmother." 

"  Yes,  I  do." 

"How  much?" 

"  More'n  tonguecantell.  What  is  a  tonguecantell, 
Grandmother  ?  " 

And  while  she  was  telling  you  she  would  be  poking  the 
tip  of  her  finger  into  the  soft  of  you?  jacket,  so  that  you 
doubled  up  suddenly  with  your  knees  to  your  chin ;  and 
while  you  guarded  your  ribs  a  funny  spider  would  crawl 

1  From  In  the  Morning  Glow,  by  Roy  Rolfe  Gilson.  Copyright, 
1902,  by  Harper  &  Brothers. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  55 

down  the  back  of  your  neck ;  and  when  you  chased  the 
spider  out  of  your  collar  it  would  suddenly  creep  under 
your  chin,  or  there  would  be  a  panic  in  the  ribs  again.  By 
that  time  you  were  nothing  but  wriggles  and  giggles  and 
little  cries. 

"Don't,  Grandmother;  you  tickle."  And  Grandmother 
would  pause,  breathless  as  yourself,  and  say,  "  Oh,  my ! " 

"Now  you  must  do  it  some  more,  Grandmother,"  you 
would  urge,  but  she  would  shake  her  head  at  you  and  go 
back  to  her  knitting. 

A  generalized  reminiscence  differs  from  the  rem- 
iniscences that  you  have  written,  in  that  it  is  an 
account  of  an  action  that  you  repeated  many  times  : 
it  is  not  an  account  of  what  you  did  at  one  particu- 
lar time.  Pure  description  and  pure  narration 
deal  with  particular  material ;  —  with  particular 
characters,  a  particular  place,  and  a  particular 
time.  Writing  in  which  the  material  is  general  is 
exposition  or  argumentation.  Most  discourse,  as 
we  have  learned,  is  not  entirely  of  one  kind,  but  it 
may  be  classified,  according  to  its  chief  purpose,  as 
descriptive,  narrative,  expository,  or  argumenta- 
tive. This  theme  will  not  be  pure  narration,  for 
it  will  contain  a  general  time  element ;  but  the  in- 
terest of  the  reader  or  hearer  is  chiefly  in  the 
characters  and  what  they  did,  therefore  the  theme 
will  be  a  narration  in  chief  purpose.  This  theme 
resembles  that  assigned  in  Lesson  19. 

This  theme  should  describe  a  single  thing  that 
was  done  to  entertain  you ;  not  several  things.  The 


56  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

theme  should  show  clearly  that  you  are  not  tell- 
ing about  a  particular  time.  Such  words  as  often, 
always,  sometimes,  frequently,  and  generally  may 
be  used  to  show  that  the  time  was  general.  The 
word  would  may  also  be  used,  as  in  the  example,  to 
show  that  the  action  was  not  that  of  a  particular 
time  (see  Rule  33  c).  The  theme  may  contain 
descriptive  material  to  show  the  character  of  the 
one  who  entertained  you. 

Suggested  subjects :  How  uncle  John  used  to  take  me 
fishing;  How  grandfather  used  to  make  shadows  on  the 
wall ;  How  big  brother  used  to  make  willow  whistles  for 
us ;  How  father  and  mother  used  to  prepare  the  Christmas 
tree  for  us  on  Christmas  eve ;  How  our  teacher  used  to  en- 
tertain us  on  Saint  Valentine's  Day ;  How  the  hired  man 
used  to  teach  us  to  ride  horseback ;  How  Aunt  Jane  used 
to  tell  me  the  story  of  the  pigs  ;  How  mother  used  to  pop 
corn  for  us  on*winter  evenings. 

Or  form  your  story  from  the  picture  on  the  opposite  page. 
Imagine  that  you  are  young  Walter  Raleigh ;  tell  how  you 
and  your  chum  used  to  go  to  the  beach  to  sail  your  toy 
caravel  and  how  the  earringed  sailor  used  to  tell  you  won- 
derful tales  about  the  land  across  the  western  sea.  Give 
an  idea  of  the  marvelous  stories  he  told  arid  of  your  rapt 
attention. 

LESSON  36 

Exercise :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  first  three 
pages  of  the  discussion  of  Misused  Words  and 
Phrases,  beginning  on  page  339. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  57 

LESSON  37 

Short  theme  assignment  :  Write  a  generalized 
reminiscence  which  will  show  how  you  used  to 
entertain  yourself,  or  how  you  and  others  used 
to  entertain  yourselves. 

Example  :  — 

PLAYING  CATERPILLAR1 

Antoinette  and  I  used  to  play  that  we  were  caterpillars. 
We  would  crawl  along  painfully  on  the  ground  on  our  knees 
and  stomachs,  seeking  for  leaves  to  eat.  Then  we  would 
pretend  that  an  irresistible  drowsiness  "benumbed  our  senses, 
and  we  would  lie  down  in  some  corner  under  the  branches, 
covering  our  heads  with  our  white  aprons  ;  we  were  chrys- 
alides in  cocoons. 

This  state  lasted,  more  or  less,  for  a  long  time,  and  we 
were  so  engrossed  with  our  role  of  insects  in  metamorphosis 
that  one  might  have  heard  such  words  as  these  spoken  in 
tones  of  entire  conviction  : 

"  Do  you  think  you  will  be  able  to  fly  soon  ?  " 

"  Oh,  it  won't  be  long  this  time.  ...  I  can  feel  them  on 
my  shoulders  already  ;  they  are  about  to  unfold,"  —  refer- 
ring to  wings,  of  course. 

Finally  we  would  wake  up,  stretch  ourselves  without 
sayipg  a  word,  and  suddenly  begin  to  run  lightly  here 
and  there,  holding  with  our  hands  the  corners  of  our  white 
pinafores,  making  them  flutter  like  wings.  We  would  run 
and  run,  chasing  each  other,  then  flying  away  hither  and 
thither  in  sharp,  fantastic  curves,  stooping  to  smell  every 
flower,  to  imitate  the  restlessness  of  butterflies. 


The  Romance  of  a  Child,  by  Pierre  Loti,  translated 
by  Mary  L.  Watkins.  Copyright,  1891,  by  Rand,  McNally  & 
Company. 


58  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

This  theme  should  be  similar  to  the  one  assigned 
in  the  last  lesson.  The  time  should  be  general,  but 
the  interest  of  the  reader  will  probably  be  directed 
primarily  to  what  the  characters  did ;  that  is,  the 
theme  will  probably  be  narrative  in  chief  purpose. 
However,  if  you  tell  how  you  used  to  play  a  game, 
the  reader  might  be  chiefly  interested  in  learning 
how  to  play  the  game :  in  that  case  the  theme 
would  be,  for  the  reader,  more  exposition  than  nar- 
ration. It  is  intended  that  the  student  should  give 
a  literary  tone  to  the  theme  and  direct  the  interest 
of  the  reader  to  what  the  characters  did;  that  is, 
that  he  should  make  the  theme  primarily  narration. 
The  exposition,  or  explanation,  of  a  process  will  be 
reserved  for  a  later  theme. 

Suggested  subjects :  How  I  used  to  dress  the  cat ;  How  I 
used  to  imagine  things  at  night ;  How  we  used  to  play  in  the 
leaves,  build  houses,  build  dams,  sail  boats,  or  play  in  the 
attic;  How  we  used  to  play  Jail,  Old  Witch,  Touch  Ball, 
Blind  Man's  Buff,  Blackman,  Old  Black  Tom,  Three  Deep, 
Fair,  Cars,  Indian,  School,  Circus,  Store,  Church,  Hospital, 
or  Bear. 

LESSON  38 

Short  theme  assignment :  Write  a  theme  of  any 
kind  that  has  been  assigned. 

LESSON   39 

Long  theme  assignment:1  Write  a  story  using 
the  impersonal  point  of  view. 

1  Review  Lesson  20  and  the  discussion  in  Lesson  27, 


THEME    ASSIGNMENT  59 

NOTE.  —  The  teacher  should  determine  the  approximate 
length  of  this  theme.  Five  pages  might  be  a  good  length 
for  the  story  if  it  is  written  by  high  school  students. 

Example :  — 

A  LITTLE  FEMININE  CASABIANCA1 

One  awful  day,  at  the  close  of  the  first  week,  the  Large 
Lady  made  discovery  that  while  to  Emmy  Lou  "d-o-g" 
might  spell  "  dog,"  and  "  f-r-o-g  "  might  spell  "  frog,"  Emmy 
Lou  could  not  find  either  on  a  printed  page,  and,  further, 
could  not  tell  wherein  they  differed  when  found  for  her. 
Sorely  perplexed  within  herself  as  to  the  proper  course  to  be 
pursued,  in  the  sight  of  fifty-nine  other  First  Readers,  she 
pointed  a  condemning  forefinger  at  the  miserable  little  ob- 
ject standing  in  front  of  her  platform,  and  said,  "You  will 
stay  after  school,  Emma  Louise,  that  I  may  examine  further 
into  your  qualifications  for  this  grade." 

Now  Emmy  Lou  had  no  idea  what  it  meant  —  "  examine 
further  into  your  qualifications  for  this  grade."  It  might 
be  the  form  of  punishment  in  vogue  for  the  chastisement  of 
the  members  of  the  First  Reader.  But  "  stay  after  school " 
she  did  understand,  and  her  heart  sank,  and  her  little 
breast  heaved. 

It  was  then  past  the  noon  recess.  In  those  days,  in  that 
particular  city,  school  closed  at  half-past  one.  At  last  the 
bell  for  dismissal  had  rung.  The  Large  Lady,  arms  folded 
across  her  bombazine  bosom,  had  faced  the  class,  and  with 
awesome  solemnity  had  already  enunciated,  "  Attention ! " 
and  sixty  little  people  had  sat  up  straight,  when  the  door 
opened,  and  a  teacher  from  the  floor  above  came  in. 

At  her  whispered  confidence,  the  Large  Lady  left  the 
room  hastily,  while  the  strange  teacher,  with  a  hurried 

1  From  Emmy  Lou,  by  George  Madden  Martin.  Copyright,  1902,  by 
S.  S.  McClure  Co.  Published  by  Doubleday,  Page  &  Company. 


60  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

"  One  —  two  —  three ;  march  out  quietly,  children,"  turned, 
and  followed  her.  And  Emmy  Lou,  left  sitting  at  her  desk, 
saw  through  gathering  tears  the  line  of  First  Readers  wind 
around  the  room  and  file  out  the  door,  the  sound  of  their 
departing  footsteps  along  the  bare  corridors  and  down  the 
echoing  stairway  coming  back  like  a  knell  to  her  sinking 
heart.  Then  class  after  class  from  above  marched  past  the 
door  and  on  its  clattering  way,  while  voices  from  outside, 
shrill  with  the  joy  of  the  release,  came  up  through  the  open 
windows  in  talk,  in  laughter,  together  with  the  patter  of 
feet  on  the  bricks.  Then  as  these  familiar  sounds  grew 
fewer,  fainter,  farther  away,  some  belated  footsteps  went 
echoing  through  the  building,  a  door  slammed  somewhere 
—  then — silence. 

Emmy  Lou  waited.  She  wondered  how  long  it  would 
be.  There  was  watermelon  at  home  for  dinner;  she  had 
seen  it  borne  in,  a  great  striped  promise  of  ripe  and  juicy 
lusciousness,  on  the  marketman's  shoulder  before  she  came 
to  school.  And  here  a  tear,  long  gathering,  splashed  down 
the  pink  cheek. 

Still  that  awesome  personage  presiding  over  the  fortunes 
of  the  First  Readers  failed  to  return.  Perhaps  this  was 
"the  examination  into  —  into — "  Emmy  Lou  could  not  re- 
member what  —  to  be  left  in  this  big,  bare  room  with  the 
flies  droning  and  humming  in  lazy  circles  up  near  the  ceil- 
ing. The  forsaken  desks,  with  a  forgotten  book  or  slate  left 
here  and  there  upon  them,  the  pegs  around  the  wall  empty 
of  hats  and  bonnets,  the  unoccupied  chair  upon  the  plat- 
form —  Emmy  Lou  gazed  at  these  with  a  sinking  sensation 
of  desolation,  while  tear  followed  tear  down  her  chubby  face. 
And  listening  to  the  flies  and  the  silence,  Emmy  Lou  be- 
gan to  long  for  even  the  Bombazine  Presence,  and  dropping 
her  quivering  countenance  upon  her  arms  folded  upon  the 
desk  she  sobbed  aloud.  But  the  time  was  long,  and  the  day 
was  warm,  and  the  sobs  grew  slower,  and  the  breath  began 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  6 1 

to  come  in  long-drawn,  quivering  sighs,  and  the  next  Emmy 
Lou  knew  she  was  sitting  upright,  trembling  in  every  limb, 
and  some  one  coming  up  the  stairs  —  she  could  hear  the  slow, 
heavy  footfalls,  and  a  moment  after  she  saw  The  Man  —  the 
Recess  Man,  the  low,  black-bearded,  black-browed,  scowling 
Man  —  with  the  broom  across  his  shoulder,  reach  the  hall- 
way, and  make  toward  the  open  doorway  of  the  First- 
Reader  room.  Emmy  Lou  held  her  breath,  stiffened  her 
little  body,  and — waited.  But  The  Man  pausing  to  light 
his  pipe,  Emmy  Lou,  in  the  sudden  respite  thus  afforded, 
slid  in  a  trembling  heap  beneath  the  desk,  and  on  hands 
and  knees  went  crawling  across  the  floor.  And  as  Uncle 
Michael  came  in,  a  moment  after,  broom,  pan,  and  feather 
duster  in  hand,  the  last  fluttering  edge  of  a  little  pink 
dress  was  disappearing  into  the  depths  of  the  big,  empty 
coal  box,  and  its  sloping  lid  was  lowering  upon  a  flaxen 
head  and  a  cowering  little  figure  crouched  within.  Uncle 
Michael  having  put  the  room  to  rights,  sweeping  and  dust- 
ing, with  many  a  rheumatic  groan  in  accompaniment,  closed 
the  windows,  and  going  out,  drew  the  door  after  him  and, 
as  was  his  custom,  locked  it. 

Meanwhile,  at  Emmy  Lou's  home,  the  elders  wondered. 
"  You  don't  know  Emmy  Lou,"  Aunt  Cordelia,  round,  plump, 
and  cheery,  insisted  to  the  lady  visitor  spending  the  day  ; 
"Emmy  Lou  never  loiters." 

Aunt  Katie,  the  prettiest  aunty,  cut  off  a  thick  round  of 
melon  as  they  arose  from  the  table,  and  put  it  in  the  refrig- 
erator for  Emmy  Lou.  "  It  seems  a  joke,"  she  remarked, 
"  such  a  baby  as  Emmy  Lou  going  to  school  anyhow ;  but 
then  she  has  only  a  square  to  go  and  come." 

But  Emmy  Lou  did  not  come.  And  by  half-past  two  Aunt 
Louise,  the  youngest  auntie,  started  out  to  find  her.  But 
as  she  stopped  on  the  way  at  the  .houses  of  all  the  neigh- 
bors to  inquire,  and  ran  around  the  corner  to  Cousin  Tom 
Macklin's  to  see  if  Emmy  Lou  could  be  there,  and  then, 


62  NARRATIVE   WRITING 

being  but  a  few  doors  off,  went  on  around  that  corner 
to  Cousin  Amanda's,  the  school  house,  when  she  finally 
reached  it,  was  locked  up,  with  the  blinds  down  at  every 
front  window  as  if  it  had  closed  its  eyes  and  gone  to  sleep. 
Uncle  Michael  had  a  way  of  cleaning  and  locking  the  front 
of  the  building  first,  and  going  in  and  out  at  the  back  doors. 
But  Aunt  Louise  did  not  know  this,  and,  anyhow,  she  was 
sure  that  she  would  find  Emmy  Lou  at  home  when  she  got 
there. 

But  Emmy  Lou  was  not  at  home,  and  it  being  now  well 
on  in  the  afternoon,  Aunt  Katie  and  Aunt  Louise  and  the 
lady  visitor  and  the  cook  all  started  out  in  search,  while 
Aunt  Cordelia  sent  the  house-boy  down  town  for  Uncle 
Charlie.  Just  as  Uncle  Charlie  arrived  —  and  it  was  past 
five  o'clock  by  then  —  some  of  the  children  of  the  neighbor- 
hood, having  found  a  small  boy  living  some  squares  off  who 
confessed  to  being  in  the  First  Reader  with  Emmy  Lou, 
arrived  also,  with  the  small  boy  in  tow. 

"  She  didn't  know  l  dog '  from  f  frog '  when  she  saw  'em," 
stated  the  small  boy,  with  the  derision  of  superior  ability, 
"an'  teacher,  she  told  her  to  stay  after  school.  She  was 
settin'  there  in  her  desk  when  school  let  out,  Emmy  Lou 
was. " 

But  a  big  girl  of  the  neighborhood  objected.  "Her 
teacher  went  home  the  minute  school  was  out,"  she  de- 
clared. "  Isn't  the  new  lady,  Mrs.  Samuels,  your  teacher  ?  " 
this  to  the  small  boy.  "  Well,  her  daughter,  Lettie,  she's  in 
my  room,  and  she  was  sick,  and  her  mother  came  up  to  our 
room  and  took  her  home.  Our  teacher,  she  went  down  and 
dismissed  the  First  Readers." 

"I  don't  care  if  she  did,"  retorted  the  small  boy.  "I 
reckon  I  saw  Emmy  Lou  settin'  there  when  we  came  away." 

Aunt  Cordelia,  pale  and  tearful,  clutched  Uncle  Charlie's 
arm.  "  Then  she's  there,  Brother  Charlie,  locked  up  in  that 
dreadful  place  —  my  precious  baby  — r' 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  63 

"  Pshaw !  "  said  Uncle  Charlie. 

But  Aunt  Cordelia  was  wringing  her  hands.  "  You  don't 
know  Emmy  Lou,  Charlie.  If  she  was  told  to  stay,  she  has 
stayed.  She's  locked  up  in  that  dreadful  place.  What  shall 
we  do,  my  baby,  my  precious  baby  —  " 

Aunt  Katie  was  in  tears,  Aunt  Louise  in  tears,  the  cook  in 
loud  lamentation,  Aunt  Cordelia  fast  verging  upon  hysteria. 

The  small  boy  from  the  First  Reader,  legs  apart,  hands 
in  knickerbocker  pockets,  gazed  at  the  crowd  of  irresolute 
elders  with  scornful  wonder.  "  What  you  wanter  do, " 
stated  the  small  boy,  lt  is  to  find  Uncle  Michael ;  he  keeps 
the  keys.  He  went  past  my  house  a  while  ago,  going  home. 
He  lives  in  Kose  Lane  Alley.  'Taint  much  outer  my  way," 
condescendingly  ;  "  I  '11  take  you  there."  And  meekly  they 
followed  in  his  footsteps. 

It  was  dark  when  a  motley  throng  of  uncle,  aunties,  visit- 
ing lady,  neighbors,  and  children  went  climbing  the  cavern- 
ous, echoing  stairway  of  the  dark  school  building  behind  the 
toiling  figure  of  the  skeptical  Uncle  Michael,  lantern  in  hand. 

"  Ain't  I  swept  over  every  inch  of  this  here  schoolhouse 
myself  and  carried  the  trash  out  in  a  dustpan  ?  "  grumbled 
Uncle  Michael,  with  what  inference  nobody  just  then 
stopped  to  inquire.  Then  with  the  air  of  a  mistreated, 
aggrieved  person  who  feels  himself  a  victim,  he  paused 
before  a  certain  door  on  the  second  floor,  and  fitted  a  key  in 
its  lock.  "  Here  it  is,  then,  Number  Nine,  to  satisfy  the 
lady,"  and  he  flung  open  the  door.  The  light  of  Uncle 
Michael's  lantern  fell  upon  the  wide-eyed,  terror-smitten 
person  of  Emmy  Lou,  in  her  desk,  awaiting,  her  miserable 
little  heart  knew  not  what  horror. 

"  She  —  she  told  me  to  stay,"  sobbed  Emmy  Lou  in  Aunt 
Cordelia's  arms,  "and  I  stayed:  and  the  Man  came,  and  I 
hid  in  the  coal  box !  " 

And  Aunt  Cordelia,  holding  her  close,  sobbed  too,  and 
Aunt  Katie  cried,  and  Aunt  Louise  and  the  lady  visitor  cried, 


64  NARRATIVE  WRITING 

and  Uncle  Charlie  passed  his  plump  white  hand  over  his 
eyes,  and  said,  "  Pshaw !  "  And  the  teacher  of  the  First 
Reader,  when  she  heard  about  it  next  day,  cried  hardest  of 
them  all,  so  hard  that  not  even  Aunt  Cordelia  could  cherish 
a  feeling  against  her. 

The  student's  theme  may  be  written  with  or 
without  direct  discourse.  It  should  be  like  the 
short  stories  in  Lessons  30  and  33 ;  except,  since  it 
is  to  be  longer,  the  plot  should  be  more  complicated. 
There  should  be  no  introduction  and  the  action 
should  begin  immediately,  preferably  in  the  first 
paragraph. 

The  student  should  use  characters  and  a  back- 
ground familiar  to  him  by  actual  experience.  It  is 
as  absurd  for  American  pupils  to  write  about  Aus- 
tralia or  Japan  as  it  was  for  the  early  American 
poets  to  write  about  the  nightingale.  No  one  can 
write  literature  that  will  express  true  feeling  who 
only  imagines  that  he  feels. 

The  characters  should  be  the  most  important  ele- 
ment of  this  theme ;  they  should  be  chosen  from  real 
life,  —  a  well-known  companion,  an  old  man  of  the 
neighborhood,  or  a  woman  with  whom  the  writer 
has  often  talked.  They  may  be  presented  by  various 
methods,  —  by  direct  description,  by  their  actions, 
by  their  speech ;  or,  indirectly,  by  showing  how  they 
are  regarded  by  the  other  characters  in  the  story. 

The  theme  should  not  be  an  adventure  nor  an 
account  of  the  incidents  of  a  picnic  or  a  journey, 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  65 

for  such  a  narrative  would  lack  the  unity  of  a 
typical  short  story.  It  should  not  be  a  dialect  story, 
and  it  should  not  contain  characters  who  use  bad 
English,  except  in  a  few  characteristic  phrases.  It 
should  not  be  a  surprise  story,  like  a  story  that 
proves  to  be  a  dream ;  nor  should  the  conclusion 
depend  upon  chance  or  accident,  like  the  conven- 
tional story  of  the  newsboy  who  saved  his  mother 
from  starvation  by  finding  a  thousand  dollars. 

Suggestions:  1.  A  story  in  which  there  is  an  animal; 
e.g.  Marjory  wanted  to  keep  a  cat  against  her  mother's  wish, 
so  she  hid  it  in  the  barn ;  but  that  night  she  confessed  and 
her  mother  let  her  keep  it. 

2.  A  story  of  ambition,  attained  or  defeated.     For  an  ex- 
ample, see  the  outlined  plot  in  Lesson  20,  "Narration." 

3.  A  story  of  devotion  to  a  friend,  or  to  duty  ;  e.g.  "  The 
Shadow  of  a  Tragedy  "  ;  also,  The  attempt  of  Mammy  Lou's 
Sammy  to  raise  a  geranium  for  his  teacher's  birthday  was 
defeated  by  Smutty,  the  pig ;  but  he  got  some  paper  flowers, 
which  the  teacher  appreciated  because  of  his  efforts. 

4.  A  humorous  story  of  revenge ;  e.g.  Sammy  sought  re- 
venge on  the  nervous  Englishman  by  putting  crickets  in 
the  Englishman's  room ;  and,  after  a  night  of  rejoicing,  he 
willingly  took  his  punishment. 

5.  A  story  of  school  life;  e.g.  George  Wehr  refused  to 
play  in  the  championship  ball  game  because  he  had  been 
falsely  accused  by  a  member  of  the  team  ;  but  at  the  critical 
time  he  went  into  the  game  and  his  good  work  led  to  his 
vindication. 

Suggested  titles :  In  Defense  of  the  New  Baby ;  The 
Shadow  of  the  Principal ;  The  Invincible  Professor ;  The 
Hallowe'en  Mirror ;  The  Intercession  of  Sue ;  The  Dis- 
grace of  the  Sophomores. 


CHAPTER   IV 
EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

LESSON   40 
EXPOSITION 

Exposition  is  the  kind  of  composition  that  ex- 
plains general  or  abstract  subject  matter;  that  is, 
Formal  subject  matter  that  cannot  be  known 
Definition  directly  through  the  senses.  The  com- 
mon kinds  of  such  subject  matter  are:  — 

1.  (a)   The  nature  of  a  process  (how  something 
is  made  or  done.)     Cook  books  and  books  of  games 
will  furnish  examples. 

(b)  The  nature    of  a    class    of   things;  for  ex- 
ample, engines,  horses,  superstitions.      Textbooks 
on    botany,  chemistry,  and  anatomy  will  furnish 
examples. 

(c)  The  nature  of  an  abstract  quality ;    for  ex- 
ample, courage,  the  courage  of  Indians,  the  cour- 
age of  John  Brown. 

2.  The  meaning  of  a  word,  sentence,  or  discourse. 
Dictionaries   and  books  of  literary  interpretation 
will  furnish  examples. 

3.  The  application  of  a  law  or  principle;  for  ex- 
ample, The  application  of  the  principles  of  unity, 

66 


KINDS   OF   EXPOSITION  67 

proportion,  proper  arrangement,  and  coherence  to 
composition  in  Lesson  1. 

4.  The  use  or  uses ;  effect  or  effects ;  result  or 
results  ;  cause  or  causes;  etc.,  of  a  thing  or  class  of 
things  ;  for  example,  The  uses  of  electricity. 

We  have  learned  that  description  and  narration 
deal  with  particular  subject  matter ;  that  is,  with 
subject  matter  that  can  be  perceived 
directly  through  the  senses.  We  have  primarily 
also  learned  that  literary  description  and  to  the  in- 
nar ration,  because  of  their  appeal  to  the 
senses,  appeal  to  the  emotions,  sometimes  more 
than  to  the  intellect.  We  are  now  to  study  a 
kind  of  discourse  that  deals  with  subject  matter 
that  cannot  be  perceived  directly  through  the 
senses.  We  shall  see  that  exposition,  because  of 
its  purpose  and  its  general  subject  matter,  appeals 
primarily  to  the  intellect.  An  audience  will  sit 
quiet  and  thoughtful  while  the  speaker  explains, 
but  it  will  be  moved  to  laughter  or  tears  when  he 
describes  or  narrates. 

KINDS    OF    EXPOSITION 

The  exposition  in  a  textbook  in  botany,  anatomy, 
or  chemistry  may  be  called  scientific  exposition  be- 
cause it  gives  exact  definitions  and  com-  scientific 
plete  classifications  which  can  be  con-  Exposition 
structed  only  after  careful  study.  In  such  exposi- 
tion the  personality  of  the  author  is  for  the  most 


68  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

part  concealed,  and  apparently  but  little  effort  is 
made  to  entertain  the  reader :  the  all-important 
thing  is  instruction.  Few  of  us  are  able  to  write 
scientific  exposition  because  of  our  limited  knowl- 
edge of  any  one  subject,  and  few  of  us  have  occasion 
to  use  it. 

The  exposition  which  we  should  probably  use  if 
we  attempted  to  explain  to  a  child  what  microbes 
informal  are  or  wfty  water  boils,  may  be  called  in- 
Exposition  formal  exposition.  Like  scientific  exposi- 
tion, its  chief  purpose  is  to  instruct,  and  its  most 
essential  characteristic  should  be  clearness;  but  it 
aims  also  at  effectiveness  quite  as  much  as  at 
exactness.  Informal  exposition,  without  striving 
for  exact  definitions  and  complete  classifications, 
gives,  as  clearly  and  effectively  as  possible,  what- 
ever explanation  the  purpose  of  the  author  may 
require.  Such  exposition  often  reveals  the  person- 
ality of  the  author  by  showing  his  unique  way  of 
thinking.  Irving,  Hawthorne,  Holmes,  and  similar 
writers  use  so  much  informal  exposition  in  their 
narrative  and  descriptive  writings  that  they  are  said 
to  use  the  essay  style.  Informal  exposition  is  some- 
times called  literary  exposition.  The  expository 
themes  that  we  shall  write  will  be  more  or  less 
informal. 

METHODS  OF  EXPOSITION 

There  are  two  ways  of  explaining,  called,  tech- 
nically, "  exposition  by  division/'  and  "  exposition 


EXPOSITION  BY  DIVISION  69 

by  definition."  A  person  uses  the  method  of  divi- 
sion when  he  divides  his  subject  into  classes  or 
parts,  that  he  may  show  what  the  subject  includes, 
or  that  he  may  explain  the  subject  a  part  at  a  time. 
He  uses  the  method  of  definition  when  he  gives  the 
distinguishing  characteristics  of  the  subject  or  o'f  a 
part  of  the  subject.  A  writer  does  not  often  use 
division  without  also  using  definition.  Division 
gives  the  classes  or  parts;  definition  gives  the  gen- 
eral characteristics. 

i.   Exposition  by  Division 

Division  is  the  method  of  exposition  that  explains 
by  telling  the  kinds  or  parts  of  the  thing  to  be 
explained.  An  author  may  divide  his  sub-  Division 
ject  matter  so  as  to  show  its  classes  and  Defined 
subclasses ;  the  different  conditions  under  which  it 
is  treated;  its  different  purposes,  effects,  results, 
uses,  etc. 

The  author  may  divide  the  subject  matter  into 
classes  of  individuals,  or  he  may  divide  the  subject 
matter  into  parts,  or  he  may  divide  the  HOW 

characteristics  of  the  subject  matter  into  Divided 
classes.  Thus  a  person  writing  an  exposition  of 
the  subject  "  Oak  Trees  "  might  divide  the  subject 
matter  into  classes,  such  as  White  oaks,  Black 
oaks,  Water  oaks,  etc. ;  or  he  might  divide  it  into 
parts,  such  as  Leaves,  Bark,  Roots,  etc. ;  or  he 
might  divide  the  characteristics  into  classes,  such 


7° 


EXPOSITORY  WRITING 


as  Where  oak  trees  grow,  How  oak  trees  grow, 
The  value  of  oak  trees,  etc. 

The  chief  purpose  of  division  is  to  enable  the 
author  to  organize  his  thought  and  make  it  clear  to 
The  Pur-  ^ne  reader.  Division  is  especially  neces- 
pose  of  sary  in  long  expository  compositions. 
Division  The  autllor  should  be  very  careful  to 

see  that  the  divisions  are  real  divisions"  or  parts 
of  the  subject  matter,  and  that  the  thought  is  so 
organized  that  each  division  contains  the  part 
which  belongs  to  it.  The  student  will  do  well  to 
examine  a  textbook  in  physics,  physical  geography, 
or  physiology,  and  to  note  how  a  great  amount 
of  subject  matter  is  divided  and  organized  so  that 
the  reader  does  not  become  confused.  The  subject 
matter  is  divided  into  parts  called  chapters ;  each 
of  these  divisions  explains  its  own  particular  part 
of  the  subject,  and  all  of  the  chapters  unite  to 
accomplish  one  purpose.  The  student  will  note 
that  the  chapters  are  themselves  divided,  at  least 
into  paragraphs.  Some  of  the  chapters  may  have 
two  or  more  main  divisions,  and  these  in  turn  may 
be  divided  into  paragraphs.  Thus  the  organiza- 
tion of  a  long  piece  of  exposition,  with  its  divisions 
and  subdivisions,  is  like  the  organization  of  an 
army.  Every  part  of  the  thought  has  a  definite 
place  in  the  organization. 

The  importance  of  learning  the  principles  of  di- 
vision before  attempting  to  write  long  expository 


EXPOSITION  BY  DIVISION  71 

themes  can  hardly  be  emphasized  too  much. 
Indeed,  the  first  work  that  the  beginner  does  in 
writing  long*  expository  themes  is  little 

,  .    .  ,  .  ,       Importance 

more    than    practice    in     dividing    the          Of  the 


subject   matter;     and   unless   he    under-  . 

J  Division 

stands  the  principles  of  division  before 

he  writes,  his  first  work  is  likely  to  be  bad. 

The  principles  of  division  may  best  be  learned 
by  studying  the  expository  outline,  which  is  a  brief 
statement  of  the  subject  matter  of  both  The  Out- 
the  entire  exposition  and  the  divisions.  line 

The  outline  also  indicates  the  relation  of  one  divi- 
sion to  another.  In  the  outline,  the  main  divisions 
of  the  discourse  may  be  indicated  by  roman  num- 
bers ;  divisions  of  these,  by  capital  letters  ;  divisions 
of  these,  by  arabic  numbers  ;  and  divisions  of  these, 
by  small  letters  ;  for  example  :  - 

THE    CUSTOM    OF    CHRISTMAS    GIVING 

I.    Origin  of  the  custom. 

II.    Nature  of  the  custom    (in  the   home,  school,    and 
church,  and  among  friends). 

III.  Results  of  the  custom. 

A.  Good  results. 

1.  For  the  giver  (broadened  interests). 

2.  For  the  receiver  (assurance  of  sympathy). 

B.  One  bad  result  (rivalry  in  extravagance). 

IV.  Ideal  nature  of  the  custom. 

All  coordinate  divisions  should  be  parts  of  the 
same  thing.  If  the  subject  is  The  effects  of  vaca- 


1$  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

tions,  all  of  the  main  divisions  (indicated  by  roman 
numbers)  should  treat  of  the  effects  of  vacations. 
First  Law  The  theme  would  lack  unity  if  one  of 
of  Division  the  main  divisions  were  "  How  to  enjoy 
a  vacation."  This  law,  of  course,  also  applies  to 
divisions  of  divisions.  If  one  of  the  main  divisions 
treats  of  "The  physical  effects  of  vacations,"  all  of 
its  divisions  (indicated  by  capital  letters)  should 
treat  of  physical  effects  of  vacations.  The  writer 
should  always  keep  the  subject  in  mind  and  see  to 
it  that  each  division  is  a  part  of  that  subject. 
All  main  divisions  (indicated  by  roman  numbers) 
should  be  coordinate;  all  divisions  of  a 

Second 

Law  of  main  division  (indicated  by  capital  letters) 
Division  should  be  coordinate,  etc.  Sometimes  a 
student  violates  this  law  by  incorrectly  making  a 
main  division  out  of  what  is  really  a  subordinate 
division;  i.e.  a  part  of  a  main  division.  The 
following  is  an  incorrect  division  of  the  subject, 
The  effects  of  school  vacations  :  - 

I.   The  effects  upon  the  school. 
II.    The  effects  upon  the  individual  student. 
III.    One  good  effect  upon  the  school. 

This  division  is  incorrect  because  the  third  divi- 
sion is  really  subordinate  to  the  first. 

Sometimes  a  student  violates  this  law  by  failing 
to  observe  only  one  principle,  or  basis,  in  dividing 
the  subject  matter;  and  as  a  result  his  divisions 


EXPOSITION   BY  DIVISION  73 

are  not  all  of  the  same  order,  or  kind.  The  sub- 
ject, The  effects  of  school  vacations,  might  be  di- 
vided in  various  ways  by  using  various  bases  of 
division,  as  the  following  outlines  will  indicate  :  - 

(On  basis  of  the  worth  of  the  effects.) 

I.   Good  effects. 
II.    Bad  effects. 
(On  basis  of  the  nature  of  the  effects  on  the  human  being.) 

I.    Physical  effects. 
II.    Mental  effects. 
III.    Moral  effects. 
(On  basis  of  the  financial  condition  of  those  affected.) 

I.   Effects  upon  poor  people. 
II.   Effects  upon  people  of  moderate  means. 
III.    Effects  upon  rich  people. 
(On  basis  of  the  location  of  those  affected.) 

I.   Effects  upon  country  people. 
II.   Effects  upon  village  people. 
III.   Effects  upon  city  people. 

Other  divisions  might  be  made  by  using  other 
bases  of  division.  There  is  no  real  division  in  the 
following  classification :  I.  Physical  effects ;  II. 
Good  effects ;  III.  Effects  upon  country  people. 
This  is  not  a  real  division,  because  some  of  the  good 
effects  might  also  be  physical  effects  and  effects  upon 
country  people.  When  you  divide  the  subject  matter, 
think  of  the  pieces  into  which  a  pie  might  be  divided, 
and  let  each  division  be  a  distinct  part  of  the  subject. 

There  is  no  division  unless  there  are  at  least  two 
parts.  I  implies  at  least  II ;  A  implies  at  least 


74  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

B,  etc.  Furthermore,  if  the  theme  is  divided  into 
the  parts  I.  Introduction  ;  II.  Discussion  ;  III.  Con- 
Third  Law  elusion,  the  real  division  of  the  subject 
of  Division  matter  comes  in  II  (Discussion),  and  the 
subject  of  part  II  must  be  the  subject  of  the  theme. 

2.   Exposition  by  Definition 

The  second  method  of  explaining  is  called  expo- 
sition by  definition.  Definition  is  the  method  of 
Definition  exposition  that  explains  by  giving  general 
Defined  characteristics.  General  characteristics 
are  characteristics  that  belong  to  all  members  of  a 
class  or  to  all  manifestations  of  an  abstract  quality 
in  a  thing. 

Division  separates  the  subject  matter  into  classes 
or  parts  :  definition  gives  the  general  characteristics 
of  the  parts  or  of  the  entire  subject.  Definition 
does  for  a  general  or  abstract  subject  what  descrip- 
tion does  for  a  particular  or  concrete  subject :  it 
presents  the  distinguishing  characteristics.  The 
difference  between  description  and  definition  is  this  : 
description  gives  characteristics  that  distinguish  a 
particular  thing,  while  definition  gives  character- 
istics that  distinguish  a  class  of  things  or  an  ab- 
stract quality.  A  wart  on  the  nose  may  be  a  char- 
acteristic of  a  certain  sailor  :  a  roving  disposition 
may  be  a  characteristic  of  sailors  in  general. 

A  logical,  or  scientific,  definition  consists  of  three 
parts  :  first,  the  name  of  the  thing  to  be  defined ; 


EXPOSITION  BY  DEFINITION  75 

second,  the  name  of  the  class  to  which  it  belongs ; 
and  third,  the  general  characteristics  that  distin- 
guish the  thing  from  the  other  members  Logical 
of  the  class ;  for  example,  "  Rhetoric  is  Definition 
that  language  study  which  analyzes  discourse  to 
determine  the  principles  of  its  structure."  A  sci- 
entific definition  should  give  all  of  the  general 
characteristics  of  the  thing  to  be  defined. 

Informal  definition  is  the  definition  we  use  in 
every-day  affairs  when  we  set  forth  one  or  more  of 
the  general  characteristics  of  a  thing  informal 
without  attempting  to  make  the  definition  Definition 
complete.  Informal  definition  uses  iterations,  ex- 
amples, comparisons,  contrasts,  etc.  to  make  the 
general  characteristics  thoroughly  understood. 

The  use  of  concrete  examples,  comparisons,  etc. 
is  very  important  in  definition.  An  unskilled  teacher" 
sometimes  gives  complete  and  scien-  useofthe 
tific  definitions  that  do  not  really  explain  Concrete 
anything  to  the  students  because  they  do  not 
understand  his  language.  A  skillful  teacher 
uses  many  examples  and  comparisons  in  his  ex- 
planations. 

The  following  are  the  most  common  ways  of  pre- 
senting general  characteristics  in  exposition  by 
definition  :  — 

Iteration  is  the  repetition  of  an  idea  in  different 
words.  If  I  say,  "  Students  necessarily  lead  a 
sedentary  life,"  some  one  may  not  understand.  I 


76  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

use  iteration  if  I  explain  by  saying,  "  that  is,  they 
are  obliged  to  spend  much  time  over  their  books." 
Definition  Teachers,  lawyers,  and  public  speakers 
byltera-  use  much  iteration.  Of  course,  useless 
tion  repetition  should  be  avoided. 

One  of  the  most  common  and  effective  methods 
of  explanation  is  to  give  examples  of  the  thing 
Definition  wni°n  *s  to  be  explained.  Thus,  in  the 
by  both  last  paragraph,  the  nature  of  iteration 
and* Par-  was  exP^ame(i  by  the  use  of  an  example  ; 
ticular  indeed,  much  of  the  explanation  in  this 
book  is  made  by  the  use  of  examples. 
Now,  it  will  be  helpful  to  note  that  there  are  two 
kinds  of  examples,  —  general  and  particular.  If 
we  say  that  sailors  are  superstitious,  we  may  illus- 
trate by  giving  general  examples,  which  apply  to  all 
members  of  the  class  ;  thus  we  might  say,  "  Sailors 
think  it  a  bad  omen  to  have  a  gull  killed  by  one 
of  the  ship's  crew."  We  give  &  particular  example 
when  we  refer  to  only  one  member  of  the  class,  as 
when  we  say,  "  An  old  sailor  in  our  town  always 
refused  to  go  to  sea  on  the  thirteenth  day  of  the 
month." 

A  general  characteristic  of  a  thing  or  class  of 

things  may  often  be  set  forth  clearly  by  comparing 

the  thing  or  class  with  another  in  which 

Definition 

by  Com-  the  presence  of  the  characteristic  is 
panson  more  apparent.  Thus,  we  might  explain 
the  student's  devotion  to  learning  by  saying,  "  The 


EXPOSITION   BY  DEFINITION  77 

student  feels  as  homesick  away  from  his  books 
as  the  sailor  does  away  from  the  sea. 

Sometimes  a  general  characteristic  of  a  thing  or 
class  of  things  may  be  set  forth  clearly  by  con- 
trasting the  thing  or  class  with  another  similar 
thing  or  class  from  which  the  characteristic  is  con- 
spicuously absent ;  thus  we  may  say,  "  The  seaman 
finds  nothing  on  land  to  interest  him  greatly,  but 
the  landsman  is  always  curious  about  everything 
pertaining  to  ships  and  the  sea." 

A  general  characteristic  may  be  made  clear  by 
giving  its  cause,  its  effect,  or  its  result. 

n  u  xu  Definition 

For  example,  we  might  show  that  the  by  giving 
sailor's  rolling  gait  is  caused  by  his  habit-  Causes, 
ual  efforts  to  keep  his  equilibrium  on  the  etc! 

deck  of  a  moving  ship. 

Sometimes  a  person  explains  a  subject  such  as 
the  nature  of  a  class  of  things,  the  uses  Definition 
of  a  thing  or  class  of  things,  or  the  by  enu- 
meaning  of  a  discourse,  by  merely  enu-  general 
merating  general  characteristics.  Thus,  Character- 
a  person  might  say  :  - 

"  The  chickadee  is  a  little  brown  bird  with  a 
tuft  of  black  feathers  on  its  head.  It  is  one  of  the 
winter  birds  of  the  northern  and  middle  states,  and 
may  be  found  in  the  trees  about  the  house  or  in 
the  depth  of  the  woods." 

Such  an  exposition  is  sometimes  called  a  gener- 
alized description,  for  the  details  are  enumerated 


78  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

much  as  are  the  details  of  description.  It  is  to  be 
noted,  however,  that  the  purpose  is  to  show  the 
nature  of  a  class,  not  to  suggest  the  appearance  of 
a  particular  bird.  Description  deals  with  particu- 
lar things. 

In  the  explanation  of  a  process  (that  is,  in  the 
explanation  of  how  something  is  made  or  done)  gen- 
eral details,  or  characteristics,  are  given 

Definition      . 

by  Gen-  m  the  chronological  order ;  that  is,  in  the 
eraiized  order  in  which  they  should  occur  in  time. 
This  is  the  order  in  which  particular  de- 
tails are  given  in  narration,  hence  the  exposition 
of  a  process  is  sometimes  called  generalized  nar- 
ration. In  narration  we  say,  "He  did  this,  and 
then  this,  and  then  this."  In  the  exposition  of  a 
process  we  say,  "  Do  this,  and  then  this,  and  then 
this." 

LESSON   41 

Short  theme  assignment :  Explain  the  process  by 
which  something  may  be  made  or  done. 

»> 
Example  :  — 

HOW  TO  FIGHT  A  NEST  OF  BUMBLEBEES 

A  Student's  TJieme 

If  you  wish,  to  destroy  a  nest  of  bumblebees,  whether  the 
nest  has  been  disturbed  or  not,  never  undertake  to  do  it 
with  a  rush  unless  you  are  sure  of  killing  most  of  them  at 
the  first  attack.  If  the  bees  have  been  aroused,  allow  them 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  79 

to  settle,  and  then  walk  up  quietly  and  stand  by  the  nest. 
Soon  the  workers  will  begin  to  come  in.  Bumblebees  al- 
ways fly  close  to  the  ground  when  they  are  near  their  nest, 
and  they  alight  at  some  little  distance  from  it.  This  gives 
you  an  opportunity.  Since  they  usually  arrive  singly,  it  is 
an  easy  matter  to  dispatch  them  by  quietly  stepping  on 
them  before  they  get  close  enough  to  alarm  the  nest.  Also, 
most  of  the  bees  are  workers,  and  when  they  come  out  of 
the  nest  they  will  leave  in  a  businesslike  way  without 
noticing  you.  Later,  they  will  return,  loaded  with  honey, 
and  will  give  you  a  chance  at  them. 

Above  all,  do  not  become  excited  and  imagine  that  you 
are  getting  hurt,  for  they  are  so  bent  on  reaching  the  nest 
that  you  can  get  them  every  time.  If  one  should  assail 
you,  do  not  run  away.  Stay  near  the  nest  where  he  does 
not  fly  high.  Keep  your  nerve.  Do  not  imagine  that  all 
are  attacking  you  when  only  one  does.  Fight  them  singly, 
and  nine  times  out  of  ten  you  will  win  and  not  get  a  sting. 

Let  the  first  part  of  your  theme  show  what  you 
are  going  to  write  about.  Do  not  give  details  in  a 
matter-of-fact  way,  and  do  not  use  an  abbreviated, 
cook-book  style.  Your  theme  should  have  a  pleas- 
ing, literary  tone.  The  present  tense  should  be 
used  in  the  exposition  of  a  process.  You  will  note 
that  details  are  presented  in  the  narrative,  «or 
chronological,  order. 

Suggested  subjects :  How  to  write  a  composition ;  How  to 
decorate  for  a  Hallowe'en  party ;  How  to  organize  an  ama- 
teur circus ;  How  to  find  a  bee  tree  ;  How  to  hive  bees  ;  How 
to  enjoy  a  winter  evening  by  the  fire ;  How  to  break  a  colt ; 
How  to  harvest  wheat;  How  to  stencil;  How  to  make  a 
kite ;  How  to  make  a  fire  in  the  furnace ;  How  to  cook  by  a 


80  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

camp   fire;   How  to  enroll  in  high  school;   How  to  study 
a  lesson  while  a  circus  is  in  town. 

NOTE.  —  If  the  students  are  advanced,  the  instructor  may 
choose  to  have  some  or  all  of  the  expository  themes  several 
pages  in  length.  The  construction  of  long  expository 
themes  gives  a  drill  in  the  division  and  the  organization  of 
thought  that  cannot  be  gained  from  the  construction  of 
short  expository  themes.  The  subjects  suggested  in  this 
lesson  and  in  most  of  the  following  ones  are  suitable  for 
either  short  or  long  themes.  If  long  themes  are  assigned, 
they  should  be  accompanied  by  outlines  showing  at  least 
the  main  divisions  of  the  thought.  The  following  outlines 
will  suggest  how  the  thought  might  be  divided  in  long 
themes. 

HOW  TO  ENTERTAIN  ON  HALLOWE'EN 

I.  The  kind  of  material  to  use  for  decoration. 

II.  How  to  decorate  the  different  parts  of  the  house. 

III.  How  to  receive  the  guests. 

IV.  How  to  entertain  the  guests. 

A.  The  games. 

B.  The  refreshments. 

V.    How  to  feel  when  you  bid  your  guests  good  night. 

HOW  TO  BREAK  A  COLT 

I.   How  to  harness  the  colt. 
II.    How  to  drive  the  colt. 
III.    How  to  care  for  the  colt  after  driving  it. 

LESSON  42 

PARAGRAPHING; 

A  paragraph  may  be  a  short  undivided  discourse, 
or  it  may  be  one  of  the  divisions  of  a  discourse. 


PARAGRAPHING  8l 

FIRST  MEANING 

The  word  paragraphing  really  has  two  meanings, 
which  are  often  confused,  even  in  the  discussions 
that  'are  given  in  rhetoric  and  composition  text- 
books. First,  The  word,  paragraphing,  may  mean 
indicating  the  divisions  or  transitions  of  thought  in 
a  piece  of  discourse  by  means  of  indentation  or  the 
paragraph  sign. 

If  the  teacher  says,  "  Paragraph  this  long  theme," 
he  means  that  the  student  should  divide  the  theme 
into  parts,  called  paragraphs ;  and  that  he  should 
indicate  these  divisions  by  placing  the  first  word  of 
each  paragraph  twice  the  width  of  the  margin  from 
the  left  edge  of  the  paper. 

The  student  should  observe  two  principles  when 
he  divides  a  piece  of  discourse  into  paragraphs. 

1.  The  paragraph  indentation   is   to   help   the 
reader  to  follow  the  thought ;  therefore  paragraph 
indentation  should   occur   only  where  there  is  a 
change,    or    transition,    in    the    thought.     Each 
paragraph  should  express  one  of  the  natural  divi- 
sions of  the  thought. 

2.  Short  paragraphs  are  often  necessary  in  the 
narration  of  direct  discourse,  but  in  other  kinds  of 
discourse  it  is  well  to  avoid  very  short  and  very 
long  paragraphs.     Usually  a  paragraph  should  not 
contain  more  than  one  hundred  fifty  or  two  hun- 
dred words,  because  it  is  not  easy  for  a  reader  to 
follow  the  thought  if  very  long  paragraphs  are 


82  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

used.  Moreover,  careful  analysis  will  generally 
show  that  the  very  long  paragraph  really  does 
express  two  or  more  divisions  of  the  thought.  On 
the  other  hand,  very  short  paragraphs  suggest  that 
the  thought  lacks  organization  and  coherence.  If 
the  student  will  study  a  theme  that  is  divided  into 
very  short  paragraphs,  he  probably  will  see  that  in 
many  cases  two  or  three  short  paragraphs  could  be 
combined  by  the  use  of  a  connective  word  or  phrase, 
and  that  the  resulting  paragraph  would  be  more 
forceful  because  it  would  give  one  central  thought 
instead  of  two  or  three  thoughts  indefinitely  related. 
Avoid  a  choppy  style. 

SECOND  MEANING 

The  word  paragraphing  has  a  second  meaning 
which  it  has  received  from  authors  of  rhetoric  and 
composition  textbooks.  The  word,  paragraphing, 
may  mean  organizing  thought  so  that  a  piece  of  dis- 
course will  be  divided  into  unified  parts,  or  para- 
graphs. According  to  this  meaning  of  the  word, 
paragraphing  is  not  merely  the  act  of  indicating 
what  the  divisions  are  in  a  discourse  that  is  already 
constructed ;  it  is  the  act  of  dividing  the  subject 
matter  and  constructing  unified  parts  of  a  discourse. 

The  real  problem  of  paragraphing,  in  so  far  as 
it  treats  of  the  division  and  organization  of 
thought,  comes  with  the  study  of  typical  exposition, 
argumentation,  and  expository-descriptive  sketches. 


PARAGRAPHING  83 

Some  writers  have  tried  to  show  that  every  para- 
graph should  be  the  unified  treatment  of  a  single 
topic  thought,  usually  expressed  by  the  paragraph 
first  sentence  and  developed  by  the  Organiza- 
following  sentences.  This  method  of 
paragraph  construction  is  successful  when  it  is 
applied  to  typical  exposition  and  argumentation, 
but  it  fails  when  it  is  applied  to  narration  and  to 
the  exposition  of  a  process.  The  structure  of  nar- 
ration is  essentially  different  from  that  of  typical 
exposition.  In  narration  (and  in  the  exposition  of 
a  process)  details  are  added  to  one  another  in 
chronological  order.  The  order  is,  He  did  this,  and 
then  this,  and  then  this  (or.  Do  this,  and  then  this, 
and  then  this).  Narration  and  the  exposition  of  a 
process  are  regularly  constructed,  a  sentence  at  a 
time,  and  the  question,  What  was  done  next  ?  (or, 
What  should  be  done  next  ?)  regularly  determines 
what  the  next  sentence  should  be.  On  the  other 
hand,  typical  exposition  is  regularly  constructed 
one  division  at  a  time. 

The  first  thing  to  do  in  organizing  paragraphs  for 
a  long  piece  of  exposition  is  to  divide  the  subject 
matter  into  its  various  parts,  meanings,  uses,  or  ap- 
plications. These  divisions  may  again  be  subdi- 
vided, and  then  finally,  all  should  be  arranged  in  an 
order  that  will  be  logical  and  effective.  Second, 
the  general  meaning  of  each  division  or  subdivision 
must  be  set  forth  in  a  paragraph.  Every  paragraph, 


84  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

whether  the  composition  consists  of  one  paragraph 
or  of  many,  must  be  considered  as  a  little  composi- 
tion in  itself,  and  the  question,  What  must  be  said 
to  make  clear  the  central  thought  (the  topic  thought) 
of  this  paragraph  ?  determines  what  the  paragraph 
should  contain.  If  a  simple  statement  of  the  gen- 
eral thought  is  not  sufficient,  it  should  be  made 
clear  by  such  means  as  iteration,  illustration,  and 
comparison. 

While  constructing  an  expository  paragraph,  the 
student  should  keep  in  mind  the  topic  thought,  and 
The  Topic  he  should  put  nothing  into  the  paragraph 
Thought  that  does  not  help  to  make  that  topic 
thought  clear.  Furthermore,  he  should  construct 
the  paragraph  so  that  there  can  be  no  doubt  in  the 
reader's  mind  as  to  what  the  topic  thought  is; 
that  is,  he  should  show  clearly  what  he  is  talking 
about.  It  is  usually  well  to  begin  the  paragraph 
with  a  topic  sentence  that  will  state  concisely  the 
topic  thought  of  that  paragraph.  (A  topic  sentence 
is  a  sentence  that  expresses  briefly  the  thought  of 
a  composition.)  Some  writers  so  regularly  begin 
each  expository  paragraph  writh  a  topic  sentence 
that  the  reader  can  get  a  fairly  good  outline  of  the 
thought  by  reading  only  the  first  sentence  of  each 
paragraph. 

The  theme,  TJie  Despondency  of  Sophomores,  in 
Lesson  44,  illustrates  a  double  use  of  the  topic 
sentence.  The  topic  thought  is  given  briefly  in  the 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  85 

first  sentence,  and  is  repeated,  more  in  detail,  in  the 
last  sentence.  A  conscious  observance  of  this  de- 
vice in  the  construction  of  paragraphs  may  tend  to 
make  a  student's  writing  seem  mechanical,  but  it 
will  aid  him  in  securing  unity  of  thought  and  defi- 
niteness  of  purpose,  for  it  requires  him  to  keep  con- 
stantly in  mind  the  thing  that  he  is  talking  about. 

LESSON   43 

Short  theme  assignment  (A  descriptive-expository 
sketch) :  Write  a  theme,  two  or  more  paragraphs 
in  length,  giving  the  nature  and  usual  appearance 
of  some  place,  such  as  a  market  place,  a  factory,  a 
school,  a  city,  or  a  section  of  country. 

NOTE.  —  The  teacher  will  determine  about  how  long  this 
theme  should  be.  If  several  pages  are  assigned,  the  them.e 
should  be  accompanied  by  an  outline  showing  at  least  the 
main  divisions. 

Example :  — 

EDINBURGH 

The  ancient  and  famous  metropolis  of  the  North  [Edin- 
burgh] sits  overlooking  a  windy  estuary  from  the  slope  and 
summit  of  three  hills.  No  situation  could  be  more  com- 
manding for  the  head  city  of  a  kingdom  ;  none  better  chosen 
for  noble  prospects.  From  her  tall  precipices  and  terraced 
gardens  she  looks  far  and  wide  on  the  sea  and  broad  cham- 
paigns. To  the  east  you  may  watch  at  sunset  the  spark  of 
the  May  lighthouse,  where  the  Firth  expands  into  the  Ger- 
man Ocean ;  and  away  to  the  west,  over  the  carse  of  Stir- 
ling, you  can  see  the  first  snows  upon  Ben  Ledi. 


86  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

But  Edinburgh  pays  cruelly  for  her  high  seat  in  one  of  the 
vilest  climates  under  heaven.  She  is  liable  to  be  beaten  upon 
by  all  the  winds  that  blow,  to  be  drenched  with  rain,  to  be 
buried  in  cold  sea  fogs  out  of  the  east,  and  powdered  with 
the  snow  as  it  comes  flying  southward  from  the  Highland 
hills.  The  weather  is  raw  and  boisterous  in  winter,  shifty 
and  ungenial  in  summer,  and  a  downright  meteorological 
purgatory  in  the  spring.  .  .  .  And  yet  the  place  establishes 
an  interest  in  people's  hearts  ;  go  where  they  will,  they  find 
no  city  of  the  same  distinction ;  go  where  they  will,  they 
take  a  pride  in  their  old  home. 

Venice,  it  has  been  said,  differs  from  all  other  cities  in 
the  sentiment  which  she  inspires.  The  rest  may  have  ad- 
mirers ;  she  only,  a  famous  fair  one,  counts  lovers  in  her 
train.  And  indeed,  even  by  her  kindest  friends,  Edinburgh 
is  not  considered  in  a  similar  sense.  These  like  her  for 
many  reasons,  not  any  one  of  which  is  satisfactory  in  itself. 
They  like  her  whimsically,  if  you  will,  and  somewhat  as  a 
virtuoso  dotes  upon  his  cabinet.  Her  attraction  is  romantic 
in  the  narrowest  meaning  of  the  term.  Beautiful  as  she  is, 
she  is  not  so  beautiful  as  interesting.  She  is  preeminently 
Gothic,  and  all  the  more  so  since  she  has  set  herself  off  with 
some  Greek  airs,  and  erected  classic  temples  on  her  crags. 
In  a  word,  and  above  all,  she  is  a  curiosity.  The  Palace  of 
Holyrood  has  been  left  aside  in  the  growth  of  Edinburgh ; 
and  stands  gray  and  silent  in  a  workman's  quarter  and 
among  breweries  and  gas  works.  It  is  a  house  of  many 
memories.  Great  people  of  yore,  Jdngs  and  queens,  buffoons 
and  grave  ambassadors,  played  their  stately  farce  for  cen- 
turies in  Holyrood.  Wars  have  been  plotted,  dancing  has 
lasted  deep  into  the  night,  murder  has  been  done  in  its 
chambers.  There  Prince  Charlie  held  his  phantom  levees, 
and  in  a  very  gallant  manner  represented  a  fallen  dynasty 
for  some  hours.  Now,  all  these  things  of  clay  are  mingled 
with  the  dust,  the  king's  crown  itself  is  shown  for  sixpence 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  87 

to  the  vulgar;  but  the  stone  palace  has  outlived  these 
changes.  For  fifty  weeks  together,  it  is  no  more  than  a 
show  for  tourists  and  a  museum  of  old  furniture ;  but  on 
the  fifty-first,  behold  the  palace  reawakened  and  mimicking 
its  past.  The  Lord  Commissioner,  a  kind  of  stage  sovereign, 
sits  among  stage  courtiers ;  a  coach  and  six  and  clattering 
escort  come  and  go  before  the  gate ;  at  night,  the  windows 
are  lighted  up,  and  its  near  neighbors,  the  workmen,  may 
dance  in  their  own  houses  to  the  palace  music.  And  in 
this  the  palace  is  typical.  There  is  a  spark  among  the 
embers ;  from  time  to  time  the  old  volcano  smokes.  Edin- 
burgh has  but  partly  abdicated,  and  still  wears,  in  parody, 
her  metropolitan  trappings.  Half  a  capital  and  half  a 
country  town,  the  whole  city  leads  a  double  existence ;  it 
has  long  trances  of  the  one  and  flashes  of  the  other ;  like 
the  king  of  the  Black  Isles,  it  is  half  alive  and  half  a 
monumental  marble.  .  .  . 

Again,  meditative  people  will  find  a  charm  in  a  certain 
consonancy  between  the  aspect  of  the  city  and  its  odd  and 
stirring  history.  Few  places,  if  any,  offer  a  more  barbaric 
display  of  contrasts  to  the  eye.  In  the  very  midst  stands 
one  of  the  most  satisfactory  crags  in  nature  —  a  Bass  Rock 
upon  dry  land,  rooted  in  a  garden,  shaken  by  passing  trains, 
and  describing  its  warlike  shadow  over  the  liveliest  and 
brightest  thoroughfare  of  the  New  Town.  From  their  smoky 
beehives,  ten  stories  high,  the  unwashed  look -down  upon 
the  open  squares  and  gardens  of  the  wealthy;  and  gay 
people  sunning  themselves  along  Prince  Street,  with  its 
miles  of  commercial  palaces  all  beflagged  upon  some  great 
occasion,  see,  across  a  gardened  valley  set  with  statues, 
where  the  washings  of  the  old  town  flutter  in  the  breeze  at 
its  high  windows.  And  then,  upon  all  sides,  what  a  clashing 
of  architecture !  In  this  one  valley,  where  the  life  of  the 
town  goes  most  busily  forward,  there  may  be  seen,  shown 
one  above  and  behind  another  by  the  accidents  of  the  ground, 


88  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

buildings  in  almost  every  style  upon  the  globe.  Egyptian 
and  Greek  temples,  Venetian  palaces  and  Gothic  spires,  are 
huddled  one  over  another  in  a  most  admired  disorder ;  while, 
above  all,  the  brute  mass  of  the  Castle  and  the  summit  of 
Arthur's  seat  look  down  upon  these  imitations  with  a  be- 
coming dignity,  as  the  works  of  Nature  may  look  down  upon 
the  Monuments  of  Art.  —  R.  L.  STEVENSON. 

Your  theme,  like  the  one  assigned  in  Lesson  19, 
should  combine  description  and  exposition.  The 
first  part  should  tell  the  name  and  the  location  of 
the  place. 

Suggested  subjects :  The  fish  market ;  The  boat  docks ; 
The  railway  station ;  The  city  square ;  The  gas  factory ; 
My  home  city,  town,  or  state ;  Our  high  school ;  The  city 
park. 

Suggestive  outlines :  — 

THE  TOWN  SQUARE 

I.   Location  and  usual  appearance. 
II.   The  square  as  a  business  center. 
III.   The  square  as  a  social  center. 

A.  On  ordinary  occasions. 

B.  On  concert  nights,  holidays,  etc. 

THE   RAILWAY  STATION 

I.   Location  and  usual  appearance. 
II.   Considered  as  a  commercial  center. 
III.  Considered  as  a  place  to  study  human  nature. 

EDINBURGH 

(Outline  of  Stevenson's  Sketch) 

I.   The  situation. 
II.   The  climate. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  89 

III.  The  romantic  spirit  that  the  city  inspires  in  its 

people. 

IV.  The  romantic  nature  of  the  city. 

LESSON  44 

Theme  assignment :  Write  a  theme  of  a  single 
paragraph  explaining  one  characteristic  of  a  certain 
class  of  people. 

Example :  — 

THE  DESPONDENCY  OF  SOPHOMORES 
A  Student's  Theme 

Sophomores  in  the  high  school  lead  a  life  of  hopeless 
despondency.  Oppressed  by  overwork  and  weighed  down 
with  worries,  they  furnish  an  excellent  example  of  the 
cruelties  of  the  present  so-called  enlightened  age.  From 
persons  of  cheerful  minds  and  inoffensive  dispositions, 
they  have  developed  into  a  class  of  pessimists,  morose, 
dull,  and  heavy-minded.  They  look  upon  the  happy,  easy- 
going, prosperous  seniors  with  envy  and  malice,  and  upon 
the  teachers  with  a  feeling  of  antagonism.  By  glancing 
over  the  faces  in  Chapel,  one  can  easily  recognize  the 
sophomore  by  his  long,  tragic,  care-worn  face.  One  feels 
that  he  is  not  unlike  the  poor,  oppressed  Anglo-Saxon  of 
the  twelfth  century,  lorded  over  by  the  happy,  easy-going 
Norman,  and  ruled  by  a  cruel,  despotic  Norman  king. 
Sullen,  cynical,  and  ill-tempered,  the  sophomore  trudges 
under  his  burden  of  work  and  worry,  waiting  blindly  for 
something  or  some  one  to  rescue  him  from  the  hopelessness 
of  despondency. 

The  first  sentence  in  this  example  is  a  topic 
sentence  which  tells  what  the  characteristic  is. 


90  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

The  second  sentence  explains  this  characteristic 
by  telling  the  cause.  The  third  sentence  gives 
a  contrast ;  the  fourth,  a  general  example  (the 
characteristic  in  the  action  of  sophomores) ;  the 
fifth,  a  general  example  (the  characteristic  in  the 
appearance  of  sophomores) ;  the  sixth,  a  compari- 
son; and  the  seventh,  an  iteration. 

This  assignment  calls  for  exposition  by  defini- 
tion. Explain  only  one  characteristic. 

Suggested  subjects  :  The  loneliness  of  freshmen ;  The 
loneliness  of  the  girl  without  a  chum ;  The  vanity  of  sweet 
sixteen ;  The  contentment  of  the  farmer ;  The  leniency  of 
grandmothers ;  The  insanity  of  the  bargain  hunter ;  The 
impertinence  of  the  neighborhood  comforter;  The  humor 
of  the  Irish ;  The  helplessness  at  school  of  the  protected 
boy  ;  The  superiority  of  brothers ;  The  cordiality  of  South- 
ern people. 

NOTE.  —  These  are  suggested  subjects;  they  are  not  all 
good  titles. 

LESSON   45 

Theme  assignment :  Write  an  expository  theme 

of  two  paragraphs  in  which  the  subject  matter  of 

the  second  paragraph  will  be  contrasted  with  that 
of  the  first. 

Example :  — 

OLD   TIMES1 

It  appears  by  reports  in  old  volumes  of  the  Sun  that 
the  New  Yorkers  who  lived  say  from  forty  to  sixty  years 
ago  must  have  had  a  lively  time  during  the  days  in  which 

1  By  Robert  G.  Cooke,  in  the  New  York  Sun.     Copyright 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  91 

the  old  year  went  out  and  the  new  year  came  in.  The 
folks  of  the  old  time  gave  themselves  up  to  all-round 
merriment  in  the  closing  hours  of  December,  often  stayed 
up  the  whole  night  for  a  purpose,  and  were  full  of  jollity 
the  next  day,  and  for  several  days.  They  visited  each 
other,  the  whole  lot  of  them,  to  pass  the  compliments  of 
the  season ;  they  tramped  around  to  house  after  house, 
from  early  dawn  to  dewy  eve,  and  later  yet.  And  anybody 
was  welcome  everywhere ;  everybody  "  took  something " 
at  the  homes  of  all  friends  and  acquaintances  ;  a  good  table, 
upon  which  there  were  plates  and  other  properties,  was 
set  in  every  one's  house ;  the  nfistress  of  every  place,  and 
all  her  children,  excepting  those  of  the  boys  who  had  gone 
out,  awaited  the  day's  visitors ;  and  happiness  reigned 
supreme,  from  the  Battery  up  along  the  Bowery,  and  other 
streets  higher  than  Canal  Street,  away  over  in  Greenwich 
village,  by  the  sides  of  both  rivers  and  far  out,  at  occa- 
sional spots,  toward  Harlem,  not  to  speak  of  Kip's  Bay 
and  hundreds  of  other  places. 

But  a  change  has  been  brought  about  within  the  last 
thirty  or  forty  years,  more  especially  during  the  time  which 
has  elapsed  since  the  war  broke  out.  The  New  Yorkers  now 
on  the  stage  do  not  enjoy  New  Year's  Day  as  did  their  for- 
bears of  the  first  half  of  our  century.  They  do  not,  for 
themselves,  ring  out  the  old  or  ring  in  the  new ;  they  do 
not  freshen  up  their  friendship,  or  go  about  the  town,  or 
carry  on,  or  eat  New  Year's  cake,  or  smell  schnappes,  or  en- 
joy the  solid  yet  foamy  old-fashioned  fun.  The  people  of 
to-day  seem  to  be  dry  and  dull,  as  compared  with  those  of 
whom  one  can  read  in  the  way-back  volumes  of  the  Sun, 
those  numbers  of  it  that  were  printed  along  about  New 
Year's  time. 

Make  each  paragraph  in  your  theme  develop 
one  topic  thought,  and  only  one.  Phrase  the  be- 


92  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

ginning  of  your  second  paragraph  so  that  it  will 
clearly  show  the  intended  contrast  with  the  first. 

Suggested  subjects : — 

1.  The  hard  work  required  from  a  student  of  composi- 
tion and  the  benefit  he  derives  from  the  work. 

2.  The  convenience  and  the  inconvenience  of  having  a 
roommate. 

3.  The  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of  studying 
with  another. 

4.  The  joys  and  the  trials  of  camping. 

5.  The  conceit  that  Seniors  are  popularly  supposed  to 
have  and  the  modesty  that  really  characterizes  them. 

6.  The  joys  and  the  sorrows  of  Commencement  Day. 

7.  The  cost  of  a  high  school  education  and  its  value. 

8.  The  ideal  fishing  trip  versus  the  real  one. 

9.  The  advantages  and  the  disadvantages  of  being  an 
only  child. 

10.    The  prevalence  of  superstitions  and  their  absurdity. 

LESSON  46 

I 

SENTENCE   STRUCTURE 

THE  composition  of  an  unskilled  writer  sometimes 

seems  monotonous    and   mechanical,   because    the 

sentence  structure  lacks  variety.     If  the 

Arrange- 
ment of  the  sentences  are  all  declarative,  the  substitu- 
tion of  an  occasional  interrogative  or  ex- 
clamatory sentence  might  prevent  the  style  from 
seeming  monotonous ;  and  if  inost  of  the  sentences 
are  simple  or  compound,  the  substitution  of  some 
complex  sentences  might  make  the  style  more  pleas- 
ing. A  piece  of  exposition  is  sometimes  monotonous 


PERIODIC   SENTENCES  93 

because  the  author  habitually  uses  only  one  way 
of  presenting  genera^  details ;  for  example,  by  giv- 
ing general  examples  :  such  a  composition  might  be 
made  more  pleasing  by  the  use  of  comparison,  con- 
trast, iteration,  and  particular  examples.  However, 
the  most  common  cause  of  monotony  in  the  style  of 
an  unskilled  writer  is  the  habit  of  arranging  the 
parts  of  the  sentences  after  one  pattern. 

Two  principal  ways  of  arranging  the  parts  of 
sentences  are  to  be  considered.  The  parts  may  be 
so  arranged  that  a  person  must  read  to  the  last 
word  before  he  can  get  a  complete  thought ;  or 
the  parts  may  be  so  arranged  that  a  person  could 
get  a  complete  thought  if  he  were  to  stop  at  one 
or  more  places  before  the  end  of  the  sentence. 

In  a  periodic  sentence  the  parts  are  so  arranged 
that  a  complete  thought  is  not  expressed  until  the 
last  word  is  given.  The  sentence,  "  When  Periodic 
the  storm  had  passed,  our  visitors  de-  Sentences 
parted,"  is  periodic  ;  so,  too,  is  the  sentence,  "  Either 
we  must  renounce  all  claim  to  these  islands,  or  we 
must  prepare  ourselves  to  defend  them." 

The  periodic  sentence  is  sometimes  spoken  of  as 
a  short,  decisive  sentence;  but  it  is  not  necessarily 
short,  as  the  following  sentence  will  show :  — 

Considering  our  present  advanced  state  of  culture,  and 
how  the  Torch  of  Science  has  now  been  brandished  and 
borne  about,  with  more  or  less  effect,  for  five  thousand  years 
and  upwards ;  how,  in  these  times  especially,  not  only  the 


94  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

Torch  still  burns,  and  perhaps  more  fiercely  than  ever,  but  in- 
numerable Rushlights,  and  Sulphur-matches  kindled  thereat, 
are  glancing  in  every  direction,  so  that  not  the  smallest  cranny 
or  doghole  in  Nature  or  Art  can  remain  unilluminated,  —  it 
might  strike  the  reflective  mind  with  some  surprise  that 
hitherto  little  or  nothing  of  a  fundamental  character,  whether 
in  the  way  of  Philosophy  or  History,  has  been  written  on  the 
subject  of  Clothes.  —  THOMAS  CARLYLE. 

The  periodic  sentence  is  usually  dignified  and 
businesslike,  hence  it  is  a  sentence  form  especially 
adapted  to  exposition  and  argumentation.  If  it  is 
used  to  excess,  however,  the  composition  is  likely 
to  seem  formal  and  conventional.  The  nature  of 
periodic  sentence  structure  is  well  illustrated  in 
the  following  paragraph  :  — 

In  the  treatment  of  both  mind  and  body,  the  decorative 
element  has  continued  to  predominate  in  a  greater  degree 
among  women  than  among  men.  Originally,  personal  adorn- 
ment occupied  the  attention  of  both  sexes  equally.  In  these 
later  days  of  civilization,  however,  we  see  that  in  the  dress 
of  men  the  regard  for  appearance  has  in  a  considerable  de- 
gree yielded  to  the  regard  for  comfort ;  while  in  their  educa- 
tion the  useful  has  of  late  been  trenching  on  the  ornamental. 
In  neither  direction  has  this  change  gone  so  far  with  women. 
The  wearing  of  earrings,  finger  rings,  bracelets ;  the  elaborate 
dressing  of  the  hair ;  the  still  occasional  use  of  paint ;  the 
immense  labor  bestowed  in  making  habiliments  sufficiently 
attractive ;  and  the  great  discomfort  that  will  be  submitted 
to  for  the  sake  of  conformity ;  show  how  greatly  in  the  at- 
tiring of  women,  the  desire  of  approbation  overrides  the  de- 
sire for  warmth  and  convenience.  And  similarly  in  their 
education,  the  immense  preponderance  of  "accomplishments" 


UNPERIODIC   SENTENCES  95 

proves  how  here,  too,  use  is  subordinated  to  display.  Danc- 
ing, deportment,  the  piano,  singing,  drawing  —  what  a  large 
space  do  these  occupy  !  —  HERBERT  SPENCER. 

In  the  unperiodic  or  loose  sentence  the  parts  are 
so  arranged  that  a  complete  thought  is  expressed 
before  the  last  word  is  given.  The  sen-  Un  eriodic 
tence,  "Our  visitors  departed  when  the  or  Loose 
storm  had  passed,"  is  unperiodic. 

Probably  the  term  "  loose  "  was  applied  to  this 
sentence  form  because  it  is  likely  to  lack  coherence 
when  it  is  constructed  by  careless  writers.  A 
careless  writer's  laziness  or  an  illogical  writer's  in- 
ability to  think  clearly  is  generally  revealed  in  his 
construction  of  unperiodic  sentences.  His  "loose" 
sentence  often  indicates  that  he  did  not  have  the 
entire  thought  in  mind  before  he  began  to  write ; 
that,  after  he  had  expressed  his  original  thought, 
he  added  a  series  of  afterthoughts  or  modifying 
details. 

From  what  has  been  said  it  must  not  be  inferred 
that  the  unperiodic  sentence  is  an  inferior  sen- 
tence form ;  indeed,  because  of  its  flexibility,  it 
seems  to  be  a  favorite  sentence  form  with  literary 
writers.  It  is  usually  smooth,  flowing,  and  con- 
versational ;  hence  it  is  especially  adapted  to  narra- 
tion and  descriptive  sketches.  The  following  para- 
graph illustrates  its  flowing  movement :  — 

Whilst  I  was  yet  looking  down  upon  these  gravestones, 
I  was  roused  by  the  sound  of  the  abbey  clock,  reverberating 


g6  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

from  buttress  to  buttress,  and  echoing  among  the  cloisters. 
It  is  almost  startling  to  hear  this  warning  of  departed  time 
sounding  among  the  tombs,  and  telling  the  lapse  of  the 
hour,  which,  like  a  mighty  billow,  has  rolled  us  onward 
towards  the  grave.  I  pursued  my  walk  to  an  arched  door 
opening  to  the  interior  of  the  abbey.  On  entering  here,  the 
magnificence  of  the  building  breaks  fully  upon  the  mind, 
contrasted  with  the  vaults  of  the  cloister.  The  eyes  gaze 
with  wonder  at  clustered  columns  of  gigantic  dimensions, 
with  arches  springing  from  them  to  such  an  amazing  height ; 
and  man  wandering  about  their  bases,  shrunk  into  insignifi- 
cance in  comparison  with  his  own  handiwork.  The  spacious- 
ness and  gloom  of  this  vast  edifice  produce  a  profound  and 
mysterious  awe.  We  step  cautiously  and  softly  about,  as  if 
fearful  of  disturbing  the  hallowed  silence  of  the  tomb  ;  while 
every  footfall  whispers  along  the  wall,  making  us  more 
sensible  of  the  quiet  we  have  interrupted. 

—  WASHINGTON  IRVING. 

Finally,  the  un periodic  sentence  does  not  nec- 
essarily lack  force.  The  most  forceful  sentences 
are  often  unperiodic  sentences  which  have  the  ele- 
ment of  climax.  Note  the  force  of  the  following 
unperiodic  sentence :  — 

The  world  will  ever  bow  in  homage  before  such  dictators, 
who  rule  by  the  power  of  genius  and  manhood,  who  mar- 
shal the  mighty  forces  of  Justice  and  Humanity,  and  who 
hold  Principle  above  Policy,  Truth  above  Diplomacy,  and 
Right  above  Consistency.1 

Some  writers  think  that  there  is  a  third  kind  of 
sentence,  "  the  balanced  sentence,"  on  the  basis  of 

1  By  Clyde  McGee.  From  Honor  Orations,  published  by  the 
University  of  Michigan  Oratorical  Association.  .  Copyright,  1901. 


BALANCED   SENTENCES  97 

the  arrangement  of  the  parts  of  a  sentence.  It 
seems  better,  however,  to  say  that  the  element  of 
balance  may  enter  into  the  construction  xheEie- 
of  either  the  periodic  sentence  or  the  un-  ment  of 
periodic  sentence.  The  word  balance  indi- 
cates the  nature  of  this  element :  two  or  more  parts 
of  a  sentence,  through  similarity  of  structure  and 
use,  are  balanced  against  each  other;  for  example, 
"  We  are  free,  but  others  have  been  free ;  and  we 
are  prosperous,  but  others  have  been  prosperous." 
In  the  same  way,  one  sentence  may  be  balanced 
against  another.  The  element  of  balance  is  a  prom- 
inent characteristic  of  the  following  paragraph :  — 

I  plead  for  the  policy  of  this  prophet-statesman.  [I 
plead]  That  no  backward  step,  no  faltering  faith  may  mark 
the  policy  of  the  future.  That  our  ideal  may  still  be  not  to 
subjugate  but  to  enlighten ;  not  to  colonize  but  to  Christian- 
ize ;  not  to  gain  markets,  but  to  make  men  free  and  teach 
them  how  to  live  in  freedom.  May  our  nation  learn  Pitt's 
message ;  that  if  we  would  live,  we  must  give  life ;  if  we 
would  be  strong,  we  must  be  pure ;  if  we  would  remain  free, 
we  must  not  enslave.  —  McGEE. 

The  second  of  the  sentences  in  this  quotation  is 
periodic  with  an  element  of  balance.  The  third 
and  the  fourth  are  unperiodic  with  an  element  of 
balance.  The  second  sentence  is  balanced  against 
the  third. 

The  element  of  balance  when  correctly  used,  and 
used  in  moderation,  makes  a  pleasing  and  forceful 


98  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

sentence  structure.     When  it  is  used  to  excess,  the 
style  is  likely  to  seem  pompous  and  affected. 

Exercises :  Classify  each  of  the  sentences  in  the 
selection,  Vocal  Athletics,  in  the  next  lesson. 

LESSON   47. 

Theme  assignment :  Write  an  expository  theme  of 
two  or  more  paragraphs  about  some  organization, 
invention,  institution,  or  kind  of  amusement.  Let 
the  first  paragraph  be  a  general  presentation  of  the 
subject. 

Example :  — 


/  Prorainei 


VOCAL  ATHLETICS1 


Prominent  among  the  features  of  a  football  season  is  the 
organized  cheering  and  singing  at  the  leading  games.  From 
the  closely  packed  bodies  of  undergraduates  in  the  grand 
stands,  under  energetic  leadership  and  often  intensified  by 
megaphones,  there  have  rolled  in  great  volumes  the  songs 
and  cheers  in  praise  of  alma  mater,  and  for  the  encourage- 
ment of  the  embattled  heroes  on  the  gridironed  field  below. 

As  usual,  this  has  been  something  which  the  crowds  at 
the  games  have  enjoyed,  something  expected  and  accepted 
as  demonstrating  youthful  exuberance  and  college  loyalty, 
and  as  giving  a  characteristic  thrill  and  color  to  the  game 
itself.  As  for  the  players,  the  noise  is  to  them  as  often  a 
nuisance  as  an  inspiration.  Not  infrequently  in  the  high 
tension  of  the  contest  they  are  wholly  unconscious  of  it. 

To  the  members  of  the  cheering  section,  the  "  rooters' " 
organized  vocal  effort  constitutes  the  main  part  of  their  par- 
ticipation in  athletics  during  the  fall.  In  the  spring  they 

1  From  The  Youth's  Companion,  December  2,  1909.  Copyright, 
1909,  by  The  Perry  Mason  Company. 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  99 

were  likewise  active  to  a  lesser  degree  at  the  boat  race,  the 
track  meets,  and  the  baseball  games,  although  in  baseball 
they  are  now  disposed  to  give  up,  in  the  interests  of  fair 
play,  the  cheering  or  demonstrations  which  tend  to  "rattle" 
the  opposing  team. 

Granted  that  it  is  a  great  pity  that  participation  in 
athletics  is  not  more  general  among  college  boys,  instead  of 
being  confined  to  a  few  who  specialize  in  the  fields,  there  is 
nevertheless  something  to  be  said  in  behalf  of  the  results 
achieved  by  the  cheering  masses  in  the  stands  or  on  the  side 
lines.  Sometimes  the  enthusiasm  is  artificial  and  the  dem- 
onstration perfunctory,  but  more  often,  and  on  the  whole, 
the  boys  are  "  getting  together,"  perfecting  a  splendid  fel- 
lowship, and  cementing  a  solidity  of  college  spirit  and 
sentiment  as  they  do  in  no  other  way  during  their  years 
together.  That  is  not  the  least  of  the  things  accomplished 
by  college  athletics. 

In  writing  this  theme,  avoid  argumentation ; 
that  is,  do  not  try  to  convince  the  reader  that  a 
certain  thing  is  true  or  that  a  certain  thing  should 
be  done.  Write  as  though  you  were  trying  to 
teach ;  not  as  though  you  were  trying  to  persuade. 

Suggested  subjects :  Baseball ;  Moving  picture  shows ; 
Chapel  exercises ;  Chapel  talks ;  Examinations ;  Free  public 
education ;  Manual  training ;  High  school  fraternities ;  Pub- 
lic parks  ;  Good  roads ;  Consolidated  rural  schools  ;  The 
notebook  system  in  education  ;  The  Young  Men's  Christian 
Association;  Street  fairs. 

These  are  good  subjects  for  long  themes.  If  a 
long  theme  is  assigned,  it  should  be  accompanied 
by  an  outline,  showing  at  least  the  main  divisions 
of  the  thought. 


100  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

Suggestive  Outlines :  — 

THE  YOUNG  WOMEN'S  CHRISTIAN  ASSOCIATION 

I.    What  it  is  (its  nature  and  purpose). 
II.    Its  organization. 

A.  Home  department. 

B.  Foreign  department. 
III.    What  it  is  accomplishing. 

FREE  PUBLIC  EDUCATION 

I.    What  is  meant  by  "  free  public  education." 
II.    Its  origin  and  extension. 

III.  The  public  expense  that  it  causes. 

IV.  The  public  benefits  that  result  from  it. 
A.   Intelligent  citizenship. 

B.   Democratic  views. 

BASEBALL 

I.   What  it  is  (a  national  game). 
II.    Why  it  is  a  popular  game. 

III.  Some  good  results  from  the  game. 

A.  Upon  school  life. 

B.  Upon  the  national  life. 

IV.  Some  bad  results  from  the  game. 

A.  Upon  school  life. 

B.  Upon  the  national  life. 

LESSON   48 

Theme  assignment :  Write  an  expository  theme 
of  two  or  more  paragraphs  about  some  habit  or 
about  some  custom. 

Example :  — 

THE  USE  OF  SLANG 

I  think  there  is  one  habit  worse  than  that  of  punning.  It 
is  the  gradual  substitution  of  cant  or  flash  terms  for  words 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  IOI 

•which,  truly  characterize  their  objects.  I  have  known  sev- 
eral very  genteel  idiots  whose  whole  vocabulary  had  deli- 
quesced into  some  half-dozen  expressions.  All  things  fell 
into  one  of  two  great  categories, — fast  or  slow.  Man's  chief 
end  was  to  be  a  brick.  When  the  great  calamities  of  life 
overtook  their  friends,  these  last  were  spoken  of  as  being  a 
good  deal  cut  up.  Nine  tenths  of  human  existence  were 
summed  up  in  the  single  word,  bore.  These  expressions 
come  to  be  the  algebraic  symbols  of  minds  which  have  grown 
too  weak  or  too  indolent  to  discriminate.  They  are  the 
blank  checks  of  intellectual  bankruptcy,  —  you  may  fill  them 
up  with  what  idea  you  like;  it  makes  no  difference,  for 
there  are  no  funds  in  the  treasury  upon  which  they  are 
drawn.  Colleges  and  good-for-nothing  smoking  clubs  are  the 
places  where  these  conversational  fungi  spring  up  most  lux- 
uriantly. Do  not  think  I  undervalue  the  proper  use  and  ap- 
plication of  a  cant  word  or  phrase.  It  adds  piquancy  to  con- 
versation, as  a  mushroom  does  to  a  sauce.  But  it  is  no  better 
than  a  toadstool,  odious  to  the  sense  and  poisonous  to  the 
intellect,  when  it  spawns  itself  all  over  the  talk  of  men  and 
youths  capable  of  talking,  as  it  sometimes  does. 

[However,]  to  give  up  the  Algebraic  Symbol,  because  a 
or  b  is  often  a  cover  for  ideal  nihility,  would  be  unwise.  I 
have  heard  a  child  laboring  to  express  a  certain  condition, 
involving  a  hitherto  undescribed  sensation,  (as  it  sup- 
posed), all  of  which  could  have  been  sufficiently  explained 
by  the  participle  bored.  I  have  seen  a  country  clergyman, 
with  a  one-story  intellect  and  a  one-horse  vocabulary,  who 
has  consumed  his  valuable  time  (and  mine)  freely,  in  devel- 
oping an  opinion  of  a  brother  minister's  discourse  which 
would  have  been  abundantly  characterized  by  a  peach-down- 
lipped  sophomore  in  the  one  word  —  slow.  Let  us  discrim- 
inate, and  be  shy  of  absolute  proscription. — 0.  W.  HOLMES. 

In  writing  your  theme,  avoid  argumentation; 


102  LXPOSITOfcY  WRITING 

that  is,  do  not  try  to  prove  that  a  certain  thing  is 
true,  and  do  not  try  to  convince  the  reader  that  a 
certain  thing  should  be  done.  The  subject  should 
be  one  with  which  you  are  familiar :  one  that  you 
might  talk  about  in  every-day  conversation.  The 
style  may  be  made  flexible  and  entertaining  by  the 
use  of  concrete  examples  and  comparisons. 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

1.  The  habit  of  being  polite  (cheerful,  discontented,  etc.). 

2.  The  habit  of  saving  something. 

3.  The  habit  of  "  cramming  "  for  examinations. 

4.  The  habit  of  studying  late  at  night. 

5.  The  habit  of  mental  concentration. 

6.  The  custom  of  planting  trees  on  Arbor  Day. 

7.  The  custom  of  sending  valentines. 

8.  The  custom  of  playing  Hallowe'en  jokes. 

9.  The  custom  of  celebrating  the  Fourth  of  July  with 
fireworks  and  confusion. 

10.   The  custom  of  holding  Commencement  exercises. 

Suggestive  outlines :  — 

BEING  POLITE 

I.   What  the  habit  of  politeness  really  is. 
II.    One  effect  of  the  habit  of  politeness  upon  the  pos- 
sessor. 

III.    One  effect  the  habit  of   politeness  has   upon   the 
lives  of  others. 

THE  HABIT  OF  SAVING 

I.    How  habit  determines  whether  we  shall  save  some- 
thing or  spend  everything.  ,. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  103 

II.   The  effect  of  the  habit  of  saving  upon  one's  self- 
respect. 

III.  Its  effect  upon  one's  interest  in  public  affairs  (hence 
upon  his  usefulness  as  a  citizen). 

Long  themes  may  easily  be  written  upon  these 
subjects.  Naturally,  the  structure  of  a  long  theme 
would  be  more  complex  than  that  of  a  short  theme. 
The  student's  outline  might  be  something  like  the 
following:  - 

PLANTING  TREES  ON  ARBOR  DAY 

I.   What  the  custom  is,  and  how  it  originated. 
II.    The  results  of  the  custom. 

A.  The  educational  results. 

B.  The  economic  results. 

C.  The  aesthetic  results. 
III.   What  the  custom  should  be. 

A.  WThat  it  should  be  locally. 

B.  What  it  should  be  nationally. 

LESSON   49 

Theme  assignment :  Write  an  expository  theme 
of  two  paragraphs  about  one  of  the  following  poems. 
(The  teacher  may  select  the  poem.)  Do  not  write 
a  paraphrase. 

CROSSING  THE  BAR 

Sunset  and  evening  star, 

And  one  clear  call  for  me ! 
And  may  there  be  no  moaning  of  the  bar, 

When  I  put  out  to  sea, 


104  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

But  such  a  tide  as  moving  seems  asleep, 

Too  full  for  sound  and  foam, 
When  that  which  drew  from  out  the  boundless  deep 

Turns  again  home. 

Twilight  and  evening  bell, 

And  after  that  the  dark  ! 
And  may  there  be  no  sadness  of  farewell, 

When  I  embark ; 

For  tho'  from  out  our  bourne  of  Time  and  Place 

The  flood  may  bear  me  far, 
I  hope  to  see  my  Pilot  face  to  face 

When  I  have  crost  the  bar. 

—  ALFRED  TENNYSON. 

LITTLE  BOY  BLUE  1 

The  little  toy  dog  is  covered  with  dust, 

But  sturdy  and  stanch  he  stands; 
And  the  little  toy  soldier  is  red  with  rust, 

And  his  musket  moulds  in  his  hands. 
Time  was  when  the  little  toy  dog  was  new 

And  the  soldier  was  passing  fair, 
And  that  was  the  time  when  our  Little  Boy  Blue 

Kissed  them  and  put  them  there. 

"  Now,  don't  you  go  till  I  come,"  he  said, 

"  And  don't  you  make  any  noise  !  " 
So  toddling  off  to  his  trundle-bed 

He  dreamt  of  the  pretty  toys. 
And  as  he  was  dreaming,  an  angel  song 

Awakened  our  Little  Boy  Blue,  — 
Oh,  the  years  are  many,  the  years  are  long, 

But  the  little  toy  friends  are  true. 

1  From  A   Little  Book  of  Western   Verse.      Copyright,  1889,  by 
Eugene  Field.     Published  by  Charles  Scribner's  Sons. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  105 

Ay,  faithful  to  Little  Boy  Blue  they  stand, 

Each  in  the  same  old  place, 
Awaiting  the  touch  of  a  little  hand, 

The  smile  of  a  little  face. 
And  they  wonder,  as  waiting  these  long  years  through, 

In  the  dust  of  that  little  chair, 
What  has  become  of  our  Little  Boy  Blue 

Since  he  kissed  them  and  put  them  there. 

The  first  poem  is  the  more  difficult  to  understand, 
but  it  is  the  better  subject  for  the  student,  if  he  is 
able  to  handle  it.  He  should  ask  himself,  What 
did  Tennyson  intend  to  say  about  his  approaching 
death  ?  (He  was  eighty  years  old  when  he  wrote 
the  poem.)  The  student  may  use  examples,  by  re- 
ferring to  parts  of  the  poem  or  to  incidents  in  the 
poet's  life,  to  explain  the  kind  of  death  that  Tenny- 
son wished.  Other  ways  of  explaining  may  also 
be  used,  such  as  iteration,  comparison,  and  contrast. 
The  poem  might  be  compared  with  Bryant's  To 
a  Waterfowl,  or  contrasted  with  Arnold's  Dover 
Beach. 

The  first  part  of  this  theme  should  tell  what 
poem  is  to  be  discussed  and  the  name  of  the  author. 
The  first  paragraph  may  well  be  a  generalized  de- 
scription of  the  poem  or  an  explanation  of  its 
meaning ;  however,  it  should  not  be  a  paraphrase 
of  the  poem ;  that  is,  it  should  not  translate  the 
poem  into  other  words,  a  line  at  a  time.  The 
second  paragraph  should  present  one  general  de- 
tail. It  might  tell  why  the  poem  is  popular;  it 


106  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

might  present  one  characteristic  of  the  writer  which 
the  poem  illustrates;  it  might  present  one  char- 
acteristic of  the  poem,  such  as  its  structure,  its 
universal  appeal,  its  appeal  to  child  nature,  its 
hopefulness,  its  pathos. 

The  student  should  try  to  give  to  his  composi- 
tion some  of  the  literary  tone  and  grace  of  expres- 
sion which  characterize  the  poem. 

Example :  — 

"O  CAPTAIN  I     MY  CAPTAIN!" 

A  Student's  Theme 

The  poem  O  Captain!  My  Captain!  is  a  song  which 
was  written  by  Walt  Whitman  as  an  expression  of  his 
grief  for  the  death  of  Abraham  Lincoln.  It  was  only  nat- 
ural that  the  author  should  speak  of  Lincoln  as  "  My  Cap- 
tain," for  Walt  Whitman's  home  was  near  New  York  Har- 
bor, and  he  had  often  watched  "  vessels  grim  and  daring " 
steered  safely  into  harbor:  and  he  had  been  in  the  Civil 
War,  too,  through  which,  Whitman  tells  us,  amy  Captain  " 
had  steered  the  Ship  of  State.  A  tone  of  triumph  runs 
through  the  poem,  for  the  Civil  War  was  successfully  ended, 
the  fearful  trip  was  done ;  but  this  tone  of  triumph  only 
heightens  the  pathos  of  the  refrain, 

"...  on  the  deck  my  Captain  lies, 
Fallen  cold  and  dead." 

The  world  will  always  be  ready  to  sing  this  song  of  Lin- 
coln. It  is  a  song  in  commemoration  of  one  of  America's 
greatest  heroes,  and  one  of  the  world's  greatest  benefactors  ; 
it  is  a  poem  containing  pleasing  imagery,  charming  music, 
and  noble  sentiment ;  and  more  than  this,  it  is  a  poem  which 


FIGURES  OF   SPEECH 

has  the  ring  of  truth,  —  it  is  the  sincere  expression  of  noble 
thought  and  emotion.  Sincerity  always  commands  re- 
spect. We  who  read  the  poem  are  ready  to  say  with  Whit- 
man, "My  Captain/'  and  "Dear  father."  With  him  we 
sincerely  repeat, 

"  Exult,  0  shores,  and  ring,  0  bells ! 

But  I  with  mournful  tread, 
Walk  the  deck  my  Captain  lies, 
Fallen  cold  and  dead." 

LESSON  50 

Exercise :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion 
of  Figures  of  Speech  and-  Forms  of  Arrangement, 
beginning  on  page  348. 

LESSON   51 

Exercise  :  Explain  the  figurative  language  in  the 
following  selections.  Classify  each  figure  of  speech 
and  give  reasons. 

There  drew  he  forth  the  brand  Excalibur, 
And  o'er  him,  drawing  it,  the  winter  moon, 
Brightening  the  skirts  of  a  long  cloud,  ran  forth 
And  sparkled  keen  with  frost  against  the  hilt : 
For  all  the  haft  twinkled  with  diamond  sparks, 
Myriads  of  topaz-lights,  and  jacinth-work 
Of  subtlest  jewellery. 

*###### 

The  great  brand 

Made  lightnings  in  the  splendor  of  the  moon, 
And  flashing  round  and  round,  and  whirl'd  in  an  arch. 
Shot  like  a  streamer  of  the  northern  morn. 


1 68  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

Seen  where  the  moving  isles  of  winter  shock 
By  night,  with  noises  of  the  Northern  Sea. 

******* 

But,  as  he  walk'd,  King  Arthur  panted  hard, 
Like  one  that  feels  a  nightmare  on  his  bed 
When  all  the  house  is  nrnte.     So  sigh'd  the  king, 
Muttering  and  murmuring  at  his  ear,  "  Quick,  quick  ! 
I  fear  it  is  too  late,  and  I  shall  die." 
But  the  other  swiftly  strode  from  ridge  to  ridge, 
Clothed  with  his  breath,  and  looking,  as  he  walk'd, 
Larger  than  human  on  the  frozen  hills. 
He  heard  the  deep  behind  him,  and  a  cry 
Before.     His  own  thought  drove  him  like  a  goad. 
Dry  clash'd  his  harness  in  the  icy  caves 
And  barren  chasms,  and  all  to  left  and  right 
The  bare  black  cliff  clang'd  round  him,  as  he  based 
His  feet  on  juts  of  slippery  crag  that  rang 
Sharp-smitten  with  the  dint  of  armed  heels  — 
And  on  a  sudden,  lo,  the  level  lake, 
And  the  long  glories  of  the  winter  moon ! 

Then  saw  they  how  there  hove  a  dusky  barge, 
Dark  as  a  funeral  scarf  from  stem  to  stern, 
Beneath  them ;  and  descending  they  were  ware 
That  all  the  decks  were  dense  with  stately  forms, 
Black-stoled,  black-hooded,  like  a  dream  —  by  these 
Three  queens  with  crowns  of  gold  —  and  from  them  rose 
A  cry  that  shiver'd  to  the  tingling  stars, 
And,  as  it  were  one  voice,  an  agony 
Of  lamentation,  like  a  wind  that  shrills 
All  night  in  a  waste  land,  where  no  one  comes, 
Or  hath  come  since  the  making  of  the  world. 

—  ALFRED  TENNYSON,  Morte  D*  Arthur. 

Question :  What  figure   of  speech   predominates 
in  Tennyson's  Crossing  the  Bar? 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT 


109 


LESSON   52 

Assignment :  Write  an  expository  theme  of  three 
or  more  paragraphs  upon  the  death  of  King  Ar- 
thur and  the  return  of  Excalibur. 

XOTE.  —  Read  the  story  also  in  Tennyson's  The  Passing 
of  Arthur.  The  length  of  this  theme  should  be  determined 
by  the  teacher.  The  subject  is  a  good  one  for  a  long  theme. 

LE  MORTE  D'ARTHURi 

Then  Sir  Bedivere  wept  for  the  death  of  his  brother. 
Leave  this  mourning  and  weeping,  said  the  king,  for  all  this 
will  not  avail  me,  for  wit  thou  well' an  I  might  live  myself, 
the  death  of  Sir  Lucan  would  grieve  me  evermore ;  but  my 
time  hieth  fast,  said  the  king.  Therefore,  said  Arthur  unto 
Sir  Bedivere,  take  Excalibur,  my  good  sword,  and  go  with 
it  to  yonder  water  side,  and  when  thou  comest  there  I  charge 
thee  throw  my  sword  in  that  water,  and  come  again  and  tell 
me  what  thou  there  seest.  My  lord,  said  Sir  Bedivere,  your 
commandment  shall  be  done,  and  lightly  bring  you  word 
again.  So  Sir  Bedivere  departed,  and  by  the  way  he  beheld 
that  noble  sword,  that  the  pommel  and  the  haft  was  all  of 
precious  stones ;  and  then  he  said  to  himself :  If  I  throw 
this  rich  sword  in  the  water,  thereof  shall  never  come  good, 
but  harm  and  loss.  And  then  Sir  Bedivere  hid  Excalibur 
under  a  tree.  And  so,  as  soon  as  he  might,  he  came  again 
to  the  king,  and  said  he  had  been  at  the  water,  and  had 
thrown  the  sword  in  the  water.  What  saw  thou  there  ?  said 
the  king.  Sir,  he  said,  I  saw  nothing  but  waves  and  winds. 
That  is  untruly  said  of  thee,  said  the  king,  therefore  go 
thou  lightly  again,  and  do  my  commandment ;  as  thou  art  to 
me  lief  and  dear,  spare  not,  but  throw  it  in.  Then  Sir  Bedi- 
vere returned  again,  and  took  the  sword  in  his  hand ;  and 

1  From  "Everyman's"  edition  of  Sir  Thomas  Malory's  Le 
Morte  D' Arthur.  Published  by  E.  P.  Dutton  &  Co. 


'110  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

then  him  thought  sin  and  shame  to  throw  away  the  noble 
.sword,  and  so  efte  he  hid  the  sword,  and  returned  again,  and 
told  to  the  king  that  he  had  been  at  the  water,  and  done  his 
commandment.  What  saw  thou  there  ?  said  the  king.  Sir, 
he  said,  I  saw  nothing  but  the  waters  wappe  and  the  waves 
wanne.  Ah,  traitor  untrue,  said  King  Arthur,  now  hast  thou 
betrayed  me  twice.  Who  would  have  weened  that,  thou  that 
hast  been  to  me  so  lief  and  dear  ?  and  thou  art  named  a 
noble  knight,  and  would  betray  me  for  the  richness  of  the 
sword.  But  now  go  again  lightly,  for  thy  long  tarrying  put- 
teth  me  in  great  jeopardy  of  my  life,  for  I  have  taken  cold. 
And  but  if  thou  do  not  as  I  bid  thee,  if  ever  I  may  see 
thee,  I  shall  slay  thee  with  mine  own  hands ;  for  thou 
wouldst  for  my  rich  sword  see  me  dead.  Then  SirBedivere 
departed,  and  went  to  the  sword,  and  lightly  took  it  up,  and 
went  to  the  water  side ;  and  there  he  bound  the  girdle  about 
the  hilts ;  and  then  he  threw  the  sword  as  far  into  the  water 
as  he  might ;  and  there  came  an  arm  and  an  hand  above  the 
water  and  met  it,  and  caught  it,  and  so  shook  it  thrice  and 
brandished,  and  then  vanished  away  the  hand  and  the  sword 
in  the  water.  So  Sir  Bedivere  came  again  to  the  king  and 
told  him  what  he  saw.  Alas,  said  the  king,  help  me  hence, 
for  I  dread  me  I  have  tarried  over  long.  Then  Sir  Bedivere 
took  the  king  upon  his  back,  and  so  went  with  him  to  that 
water  side.  And  when  they  were  at  the  water  side,  even 
fast  by  the  bank  hoved  a  little  barge  with  many  fair  ladies 
in  it,  and  among  them  all  was  a  queen,  and  all  they  had  black 
hoods,  and  all  they  wept  and  shrieked  when  they  saw  King 
Arthur.  Now  put  me  into  the  barge,  said  the  king.  And 
so  he  did  softly ;  and  there  received  him  three  queens  with 
great  mourning ;  and  so  they  set  them  down,  and  in  one  of 
their  laps  King  Arthur  laid  his  head.  And  then  that  queen 
said :  Ah,  dear  brother,  why  have  ye  tarried  so  long  from 
me  ?  alas,  this  wound  on  your  head  hath  caught  over-much 
cold.  And  so  they  rowed  from  the  land,  and  Sir  Bedivere 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  III 

beheld  all  those  ladies  go  from  him.  Then  Sir  Bedivere 
cried :  Ah  my  lord  Arthur,  what  shall  become  of  me,  now 
ye  go  from  me  and  leave  me  here  alone  among  mine  enemies  ? 

The  nature  of  Thomas  Malory's  book  is  indi- 
cated by  the  last  paragraph,  which  is  as  follows  :  — 

Thus  endeth  this  noble  and  joyous  book  entitled  "  Le 
Morte  D5  Arthur."  Notwithstanding  it  treateth  of  the  birth, 
life,  and  acts  of  the  said  King  Arthur,  of  his  noble  knights 
of  the  Hound  Table,  their  marvelous  enquests  and  ad- 
ventures, the  achieving  of  the  Sangreal,  and  in  the  end  the 
dolorous  death  and  departing  out  of  this  world  of  them  all. 
Which  book  was  reduced  into  English  by  Sir  Thomas 
Malory,  knight,  as  afore  is  said,  and  by  me  [Caxton]  divided 
into  twenty-one  books,  chaptered  and  imprinted,  and  finished 
in  the  abbey  Westminster  the  last  day  of  July  the  year 
of  our  Lord  MCCCCLXXXV. 

While  deciding  upon  the  material  for  this  theme, 
the  student  may  do  well  to  imagine  himself  dis- 
cussing with  his  parents  the  two  versions  of  the 
story  in  regard  to  the  following  points : 

1.  The   origin,   general   nature,   and   historical 
interest. 

2.  The    structure,    paragraphing,    punctuation, 
diction,  sentence  structure,  figures  of  speech,  kind 
of  discourse,  simplicity,  strength,  and  rapidity  of 
movement. 

3.  The   content,  insight   into   the   life   of    the 
Middle  Ages,  imagery,  quaintness,  romantic  nature, 
character  analysis,  and  literary  value. 

4.  The   authors.      Discuss    the    characters    of 


112  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

Malory  and  Tennyson.  Did  they  understand 
human  nature  ?  What  were  their  interests  in  life  ? 

5.  Comparison  of  the  two  versions,  their  salient 
characteristics.  Which  do  you  enjoy  the  more, 
and  why? 

Unless  the  teacher  limits  the  assignment,  the 
theme  may  be  based  upon  Malory's  version,  or 
upon  that  of  Tennyson,  or  both. 

Example  :  — 

AUCASSIN  AND  NICOLETTE1 

A  beautiful  story,  which  has  survived  some  centuries, 
is  usually  sure  to  have  suffered  much  the  same  fate  as  a 
jewel  or  vessel  of  pure  gold,  which  has  been  from  time 
to  time  remelted  and  remolded  to  suit  the  taste  of  the 
immediate  generation.  But  there  are  some  few  which, 
having  been  once  securely  treasured,  have  become  still  more 
safely  forgotten,  and  which,  when  restored  at  last  to  the 
light,  are  prized,  like  the  quaint  gold  work  from  an  Etrus- 
can tomb,  not  merely  for  the  sake  of  a  material  precious 
in  all  generations,  but  even  more  because  they  bring  back 
to  a  world  grown  older  in  tastes  and  likings  the  features 
and  fancies  of  its  younger  days.  Among  the  mediaeval 
works  of  romance  which  have  been  thus  preserved  to  us 
in  authentic  form,  there  is  none  of  greater  interest  or  beauty 
than  the  little  tale  of  Aucassin  and  Nicolette,  nor  any  that 
had  apparently  a  more  slender  chance  of  survival.  A  single 
hastily  written  manuscript,  preserved  now  in  the  National 
Library  at  Paris,  and  lost  sight  of,  as  it  would  seem,  till 
the  middle  of  the  last  century,  has  kept  in  existence  this 
little  work,  which  is  now  accounted  one  of  the  most  precious 

1  From  the  introduction  to  Aucassin  and  Nicolette,  translated  by 
Wm.  Bourdillon.  Published  by  the  Macmillan  Company. 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  113 

remains  of  the  old  French  literature,  being  not  only  of 
unique  form,  but  also  of  unusual  poetic  beauty.  It  was 
probably  composed  somewhere  between  1150  and  1200,  at 
the  period,  that  is,  when  the  great  mediaeval  literature  of 
France  was  reaching  the  height  of  its  splendor.  Aucassin 
and  Nicolette  belongs  approximately  to  the  period  of  the 
great  Arthurian  poems  of  Chrestien  de  Troyes,  with  which 
it  shows  some  affinity  of  word  and  phrase. 

It  is  perhaps  the  highest  proof  of  the  artistic  power  of 
the  author  of  Aucassin  that  he  has  succeeded  in  the  peculiar 
art-form,  prose  alternating  with  verse,  which  he  chose  for 
his  romance ;  a  form  tempting,  fatally  easy,  and  perilous. 
It  is  an  art-form  which  in  England,  at  all  events,  and  at 
the  present  day,  may  be  regarded  as  out  of  the  question 
for  any  writer  who  writes  to  be  read.  For  the  effect  of 
the  constant  change  of  prose  to  verse,  and  verse  again  to 
prose,  is  much  like  that  of  alternately  walking  and  dancing, 
with  a  necessary  change  of  shoes  every  time.  Perhaps  the 
nearest  approach  to  such  change  in  the  highest  modern 
literature  is  to  be  found  in  Tennyson's  Maud,  with  its 
changes  of  meter  ;  and  as  to  this  there  is  no  doubt  that 
these  changes  seriously  impair  the  unity  and  completeness 
of  the  poem.  There  is  some  likeness  to  this  effect  in  a  Greek 
play,  where  the  speeches  may  be  regarded  as  a  kind  of  mea- 
sured prose,  as  compared  to  the  chorus.  And  as  the  choruses 
in  a  Greek  play,  like  the  verse  sections  of  Aucassin,  were 
sung,  while  the  rest  was  declaimed,  the  likeness  of  the  effect 
as  originally  intended  must  have  been  even  closer.  In  both 
cases  it  is  evident  that  the  art-form  would  never  have  arisen 
as  a  mere  style  of  literature  on  a  printed  page. 

If  we  turn  from  the  form  to  the  matter  of  the  work,  we 
are  struck  with  the  writer's  power  of  transfiguring  the  com- 
monplace materials  of  the  minstrel  into  sudden  and  unex- 
pected beauty.  In  picturing  the  personal  appearance  of  his 
hero  and  heroine,  for  all  his  perceptiveness  and  freshness 


114  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

he  makes  no  attempt  to  rise  above  conventional  types.  His 
description  of  them  is  simply  a  list  of  the  personal  charms 
then  held  in  high  esteem,  and  is  almost  word  for  word  the 
same  for  both  the  youth  and  the  maiden.  .  .  .  [However, 
the  story  reveals]  a  conscious  attempt  both  to  delineate  and 
to  develop  character.  This  is,  naturally,  to  be  noticed  prin- 
cipally in  the  hero  and  heroine  themselves.  No  other  char- 
acter is  portrayed  for  us  except  in  its  relations  to  them,  and 
for  the  sake  of  its  influence  on  their  characters  or  fortunes. 
But  we  may  incidentally  notice  how  varied  and  how  life- 
like are  these  subordinate  characters,  and  how  true  to  the  in- 
variable qualities  of  human  nature  in  all  time.  What  could 
be  more  realistic  than  the  obstinate  pride  of  birth  in  Aucas- 
sin's  father,  the  kind-heartedness  of  the  warder,  the  sturdy 
spirit  of  the  plowboy,  the  weakness  of  the  king  of  Tore- 
lore,  the  good  nature  of  the  motherly  viscountess!  The 
shepherd  boys  are  a  study  in  themselves.  Evidently  the 
writer  knew  rustic  nature  well,  and  he  paints  from  the  life 
their  habitual  attitude  of  surly  independence  toward  supe- 
riors ;  their  nature,  easily  moved  by  superstition,  but  still 
more  easily  moved  by  money  ;  their  underlying  kindness  of 
disposition,  which  is,  however,  carefully  concealed  under  a 
manner  of  the  grossest  rudeness,  especially  when  they  think 
they  are  being  "  domineered  over." 

In  comparison  with  the  fidelity  aft&~piepmney  of  these 
minor  characters,  and  again  with  the  brightly  drawn  study 
of  Nicolette,  we  are  struck  with  the  somewhat  unreal  char- 
acter of  Aucassin.  Though  the  principal  figure  in  the  book, 
he  is  the  least  living.  Nor  is  the  reason  far  to  seek.  Para- 
doxical as  it  may  sound,  it  is  just  because  Aucassin  is  the 
figure  whom  the  poet  wishes  to  make  the  most  of,  that  he 
is  the  most  conventional  and  least  life-like.  We  saw  before 
that  the  poet  had  no  idea  of  portraying  his  hero's  features 
from  a  living  model,  and  in  the  same  way  it  never  occurred 
to  him  to  describe  his  character  from  the  life.  Just  as  in 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  US 

representing  his  hero's  appearance  he  merely  reminds  his. 
listeners  of  a  familiar  ideal  of  personal  beauty,  so  he  leaves 
them  to  picture  his  character  according  to  their  own  idea  of 
a  young  knight,  a  picture  which  he  well  knew  no  effort  of 
his  could  heighten. 

Throughout  the  story  Nicolette  is  always  fascinating. 
Each  fresh  event  brings  out  some  new  fascination,  and  fills 
in  the  exquisite  outline  with  more  vivid  colors.  We  feel 
of  her  portrait  just  the  opposite  of  what  we  feel  of  Aucas- 
sin's.  There  is  nothing  in  her  of  the  lay-figure,  the  familiar 
ideal.  Rather1,  we  are  perpetually  surprised  at  the  keen 
discernment  and  felicitous  touch  with  which  the  prae-Renais- 
sance  poet  portrays  the  maidenly  character  —  pure,  high- 
souled,  ready  for  self-sacrifice,  and  yet  not  without  a  touch 
of  the  charming  coquetry  of  light-hearted  girlhood.  What 
can  be  more  enchanting  than  the  message  she  leaves  with 
the  shepherd  boys  for  Aucassin,  with  its  transparent  fiction 
of  the  beast  in  the  forest  which  he  is  to  hunt  ?  Eager  as 
she  is  for  her  lover  to  find  her,  the  eagerness  is  not  to  be  all 
on  her  side.  "  Within  three  days  must  he  hunt  it,  or  never 
more  shall  he  see  it  with  his  eyes."  There  is  a  like  touch, 
half  of  coyness,  half  of  coquetry,  in  her  making  the  bower 
to  test  her  lover's  fidelity.  Very  pretty  also,  is  her  womanly 
tenderness  in  Section  40,  where  she  tries  to  comfort  him 
while  he  still  believes  her  to  be  far  away :  she  is  unable,  be- 
cause of  her  stained  face,  to  reveal  herself,  but  she  cannot 
bear  to  leave  him  unhappy.  But  perhaps  the  scene  in  which 
she  appears  most  charming  and  irresistible  of  all  is  that  in 
which,  disguised  as  a  minstrel,  she  sings  before  Aucassin 
the  story  of  their  love,  and  how  she  has  refused  to  wed  at 
her  father's  wish.  Of  a  truth,  this  girl-creation  of  the  old 
French  poet  takes  her  place  among  the  loveliest  figures  of 
romance. 

It  is  tantalizing  to  have  no  clew  at  all  to  the  authorship 
of  this  little  flower  of  love  stories.     Nor  does  the  work  itself 


Il6  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

give  us  any  certain  information  about  him,  though  it  is 
usually  taken  for  granted  that  he  was  a  native  of  Northern 
France,  since  he  used  a  dialect  of  that  district.  But,  how- 
ever little  we  know  of  the  personality  of  the  author,  we 
know  from  his  work  a  good  deal  of  his  mental  qualifications, 
and  that  he  must  have  been  a  person  of  quick  eye,  of  poetic 
vision,  and,  in  a  small  way,  of  Shakespearean  acquisitive- 
ness. The  work  is  full  of  little  vivid  touches,  which  are 
evidently  founded  on  memory,  and  suggested  by  actual 
scenes.  The  castle  in  the  story  may  riot  correspond  with 
the  castle  of  Beaucaire,  but  it  was  a  real  castle,  with  its  half- 
ruined  tower,  the  postern  gate  leading  into  the  street  of  the 
town;  the  chamber  overlooking  the  garden  from  which 
Nicolette  escaped,  and  the  dry  moat,  with  its  steep  sides  so 
hard  to  climb,  and  the  spring  at  the  edge  of  the  forest,  and 
the  grassy,  overgrown  forest  ways  —  all  such  details  are 
fresh  from  the  retina  of  the  poet's  eye. 

LESSON  53 

Short  theme  assignment:  Write  a  character  sketch 
about  some  person  whom  you  know. 

Example :  — 

SCROOGE 

Oh!  but  he  was  a  tight-fisted  hand  at  the  grindstone, 
Scrooge  !  A  squeezing,  wrenching,  grasping,  scraping,  clutch- 
ing, covetous  old,  sinner !  Hard  and  sharp  as  flint,  from 
which  no  steel  had  ever  struck  out  generous  fire ;  secret,  and 
self-contained,  and  solitary  as  an  oyster !  The  cold  within 
him  froze  his  old  features,  nipped  his  pointed  nose,  shrivelled 
his  cheek,  stiffened  his  gait;  made  his  eyes  red,  his  thin 
lips  blue ;  and  spoke  out  shrewdly  in  his  grating  voice.  A 
frosty  rime  was  on  his  head,  and  on  his  eyebrows,  and  his 
wiry  chin.  He  carried  his  own  low  temperature  always 
about  with  him;  he  iced  his  office  in  the  dog-days;  and 
didn't  thaw  out  one  degree  at  Christinas. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  1 17 

External  heat  and  cold  had  little  influence  on  Scrooge. 
No  warmth  could  warm,  no  wintry  weather  chill  him.  No 
wind  that  blew  was  bitterer  than  he,  no  falling  snow  was 
more  intent  upon  its  purpose,  no  pelting  rain  less  open  to 
entreaty.  Foul  weather  didn't  know  where  to  have  him. 
The  heaviest  rain  and  snow  and  hail  and  sleet  could  boast 
of  the  advantage  over  him  in  only  one  respect.  They  often 
"  came  down  "  handsomely,  and  Scrooge  never  did. 

Nobody  ever  stopped  him  in  the  street  to  say,  with  glad- 
some looks,  "  My  dear  Scrooge,  how  are  you  ?  When  will 
you  come  to  see  me  ?  "  No  beggars  implored  him  to  bestow 
a  trifle,  no  children  asked  him  what  it  was  o'clock,  no  man 
or  woman  ever  once  in  all  his  life  inquired  the  way  to  such 
and  such  a  place,  of  Scrooge.  Even  the  blindmen's  dogs 
appeared  to  know  him  ;  and  when  they  saw  him  coming  on, 
would  tug  their  owners  into  doorways  and  up  courts ;  and 
they  would  wag  their  tails  as  though  they  said,  "  No  eye  at 
all  is  better  than  an  evil  eye,  dark  master  ! " 

But  what  did  Scrooge  care !  It  was  the  very  thing  he 
liked.  To  edge  his  way  along  the  crowded  paths  of  life, 
warning  all  human  sympathy  to  keep  its  distance,  was  what 
the  knowing  ones  called  "  nuts  "  to  Scrooge. 

—  CHARLES  DICKENS,    Christmas  Carol. 

The  students'  theme  should  not  be  a  description 
of  the  person.  Parts  of  the  theme  may  be  descrip- 
tive, but  the  chief  purpose  of  the  theme  should  be 
to  explain  the  nature  of  the  person's  character. 
Of  course,  a  person's  character  may  be  revealed  in 
many  ways :  by  the  way  he  acts,  thinks,  and 
speaks ;  by  his  appearance ;  and  by  the  way  he  is 
regarded  by  others.  Though  the  theme  may  con- 
tain some  descriptive  details,  the  chief  purpose 


Ii8  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

should  be  to  present  abstract  qualities.  As  in 
most  expository  themes,  the  present  tense  should 
be  used. 

Suggested  subjects :  A  character  of  marked  individuality, 
such  as  a  pompous,  talkative,  self-assertive  old  man;  A 
quiet,  cordial,  fanciful,  and  somewhat  eccentric  old  lady ; 
A  shy,  self-contained,  poetic  student. 

LESSON   54 

Exercise  :  a.  Study  the  diction  of  the  quotation 
from  Malory's  Le  Morte  U  Arthur,  given  in  Lesson 
52.  Give  some  words  and  phrases  that  have  be- 
come obsolete  since  Malory  wrote  (1485). 

b.  Prepare  for  recitation  the  meaning  of  the  ab- 
breviations given  on  page  359. 

LESSON    55 

Long  theme  assignment :  Write  a  long  expository 
theme. 

NOTE.  —  The  teacher  will  determine  how  long  this  theme 
should  be  and  when  it  should  be  due.  It  should  be  accom- 
panied by  an  outline. 

Example :  —  • 

WHAT  A  COLLEGE  EDUCATION   SHOULD  GIVE' 

College  may  do  many  things  for  you,  — if  you  are  made 
of  the  right  stuff;  for  you  cannot  fasten  a  two-thousand- 

1  From  the  Care  and  Culture  of  Men,  by  David  Starr  Jordan. 
Copyright,  1896.  Published  by  The  Whitaker  &  Ray-Wiggin 
Co.,  San  Francisco. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  119 

dollar  education  to  a  fifty-cent  boy.  The  fool,  the  dude,  and 
the  shirk  come  out  of  college  pretty  much  as  they  went  in. 
(They  dive  keep  in  the  Pierian  springs,  as  the  duck  dives  in 
the  pond,  —  and  they  come  up  as  dry  as  the  duck  doesf) 
The  college  will  not  do  everything  for  you.  It  is  simply 
one  of  the  helps  by  which  you  can  win  your  way  to  noble 
manhood  or  womanhood.  Whatever  you  are,  you  must 
make  of  yourself ;  but  a  well-spent  college  life  is  one  of  the 
greatest  helps  to  all  good  things. 

So,  if  you  learn  to  use  it  rightly,  this  the  college  can  do 
for  you':  It  will  bring  you  in  contact  with  the  great  minds 
of  the  past,  the  long  roll  of  those  who,  through  the  $ges, 
have  borne  a  mission  to  young  men  and  young  women>  from 
Plato  to  Emerson,  from  Homer  and  Euripides  to  Schiller 
and  Browning. ;  Your  thought  will  be  limited  not  by  the 
narrow  gossip  of  to-day,  but  the  great  men  of  all  ages  and 
all  climes  will  become  your  brothers.  You  will  learn  to 
feel  what  the  Greek  called  the  "  consolations  of  philosophy." 
To  turn  from  the  petty  troubles  of  the  day  to  the  thoughts 
of  the  masters,  is  to  go  from  the  noise  of  the  street  through 
the  door  of  a  cathedral.  If  you  learn  to  unlock  these  portals, 
no  power  on  earth  can  take  from  you  the  key.  •  The  whole 
of  your  life  must  be  spent  in  your'^n  company,  and  only 
the  educated  man  is  good  company  for  himself.  The  unedu- 
cated man  looks  out  on  life  through  narrow  windows,  and 
thinks  the  world  is  small. 

~—  -^^  f       /t"V^ti '—  -~  ' 

The  college  can  bring  you  face  to  face  with  the  great 
problems  of  Mature.  You  will  learn  from  your  study  of  na- 
ture's laws  more  than  the  books  can  tell  you  of  the  grandeur, 
the  power,  the  omnipotence  of  God.  You  will  learn  to  face 
great  problems  seriously.  You  will  learn  to  work  patiently 
at  their  solution,  though  you  know  that  many  generations 
must  each  add  its  mite  to  your  work  before  any  answer 
can  be  reached. 

Your  college  course  will  bring  you  in  contact  with  men 


120  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

whose  influence  will  strengthen  and  inspire.  The  ideal 
college  professor  should  be  the  best  man  in  the  community. 
He  should  have  about  him  nothing  mean,  or  paltry,  or  cheap. 
He  should  be  to  the  student  as  David  Copperfiejdrs  Agnes, 
"  always  pointing  the  way  Upward." 

That  we  are  all  this,  I  shall  not  pretend.  Most  college 
professors  whom  I  know  are  extremely  human.  We  have 
been  soured,  and  starved,  and  dwarfed  in  many  ways,  and 
many  of  us  are  not  the  men  we  might  have  been  if  we  had 
had  your  chances  for  early  education.  But  unpractical, 
pedantic,  fossilized  though  the  college  professor  may  be,  he 
is  sound  at  heart  and  he  is  sure  to  help  you  to  higher  ambi- 
tions. He  is  not  mercenary,  and  his  ideals  are  those  of  cult- 
ure and  progress.  We  are  keeping  the  torch  burning  which 
you,  young  men  and  women  of  the  twentieth  century,  may 
carry  to  the  top  of  the  mountain. 

But  here  and  there  among  us  is  the  ideal  teacher,  the 
teacher  of  the  future,  the  teacher  to  have  known  whom  is  of 
itself  a  liberal  education.  Garfield  once  said  that  a  log 
with  Mark  Hopkins  at  one  end  of  it  and  himself  at  the 
other,  would  be  a  university.  In  whatever  college  you  go, 
poor  and  feeble  though  the  institution  may  be,  you  will  find 
some  man  who,  in  some  degree,  will  be  to  you  what  Mark 
Hopkins  was  to  Garfield.  To  know  him  will  repay  you  for 
all  your  sacrifices. 

Moreover,  the  training  which  comes  from  association  with 
one's  fellow-students  cannot  be  overestimated.  IJere  and 
there,  it  is  true,  some  young  invertebrate,  overburdened  with 
money  or  spoiled  by  home  coddling,  falls  into  bad  company, 
and  leaves  college  in  worse  condition  than  when  he  entered 
it.  These  are  the  windfalls  of  education.  However  much 
we  may  regret  them,  we  cannot  prevent  their  existence. 
But  they  are  few  among  the  great  majority.  The  average 
student  enters  college  for  a  purpose ;  and  you  will  lose 
nothing,  but  may  gain  much,  from  association  with  him. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  1 21 

Among  our  college  students  are  the  best  young  men  and 
young  women  of  the  times.  They  mold  each  other's  character, 
and  shape  each  other's  work.  Many  a  college  man  _w4H~teil 
you  that,  above  all  else  which  the  college  gave,  he'  values 
the  friendships  which  he  formed  in  school.  In  the  German 
universities,  the  "  fellow-feeling  among  free  spirits  "  is  held 
to  be  one  of  the  most  important  elements  in  their  grand  sys- 
tem of  higher  education. 

Again,  the  college  intensifies  the  individuality  of  a  man. 
It  takes  his  best  abilities  and  raises  him  to  the  second,  or 
third,  or  tenth  power,  as  we  say  in  algebra.  It  is  true 
enough  that  colleges  have  tried,  and  some  of  them  still  try, 
to  enforce  uniformity  in  study,  —  to  cast  all  students  in  the 
same  mold.  Colleges  have  placed  readiness  above  thorough- 
ness, memory  above  mastery,  glibness  above  sincerity,  uni- 
formity above  originality,  and  the  dialectics  of  the  dead 
past  above  the  work  of  the  living  present. 

But  say  what  you  will  of  old  methods,  they  often  attained 
great  ends.  Colleges  have  aimed  at  uniformity.  They  did 
not  secure  it.  The  individuality  of  the  student  bursts 
through  the  cast-iron  curriculum.  "  The  man's  the  man  for 
a'  that,"  and  the  man  is  so  much  more  the  man  nature 
meant  him  to  be,  because  his  mind  is  trained. 

The  educated  man  has  the  courage  of  his  convictions,  be- 
cause only  he  has  any  real  convictions.  He  knows  how 
convictions  should  be  formed.  What  he  believes  he  takes 
on  his  own  evidence  —  not  because  it  is  the  creed  of  his 
church  or  the  platform  of  his  party.  So  he  counts  as  a 
unit  in  his  community — not  as  part  of  a  dozen  or  a  hundred 
whose  opinions  are  formed  by  their  town's  place  on  the  map, 
or  who  train  under  the  party  flag  because  their  grandfathers 
did  the  same.  "To  see  things  as  they  really  are,"  is  one 
of  the  crowning  privileges  of  the  educated  man,  and  to  help 
others  to  see  them  so,  is  one  of  the  greatest  services  he  can 
render  to  the  community. 


122  EXPOSITORY  WRITING 

Before  you  begin  to  write,  decide  definitely  what 
the  main  divisions  of  your  theme  will  be.  The 
worth  of  your  theme  will  depend  in  no  small  de- 
gree upon  your  success  in  dividing  the  subject  so 
that  the  parts  will  be  coordinate.  Be  careful  that 
one  of  your  main  divisions  does  not  really  express 
a  subordinate  division  of  the  thought.  When  you 
decide  what  the  divisions  will  be,  write  so  as  to 
make  the  reader  see  clearly  what  the  divisions  are. 
Read  again  the  discussion,  "  Exposition  by  Divi- 
sion," beginning  on  page  69. 

Outline :  — 

WHAT  A  COLLEGE  EDUCATION   SHOULD   GIVE 

Introduction. 

I.    Contact  with  great  minds  of  the  past. 
II.    Contact  with  great  problems  of  nature. 
III.    Contact  with  inspiring  teachers. 
IV.   Contact  with  inspiring  students. 
V.    Development  of  individuality. 

Suggested  subjects  : — 

1.  Any  of  the  subjects  suggested  in  the  previous  assign- 
ments for  expository  themes  (unless  the  teacher  limits  the 
assignment). 

2.  The  responsibilities  of  a  student  (teacher,  voter,  etc.). 

3.  The  tendency  to  make  education  practical. 

4.  The  ideal  hero  (if  I  were  to  write  a  novel). 

5.  The  ideal  camping  party  (vacation,  teacher,  student, 
etc.). 

6.  My  favorite  holiday  (game,  book,  author,  etc.). 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  123 

Suggestive  outlines :  — 

THE  IDEAL  CAMPING  PARTY 

I.  The  ideal  time  and  place. 

II.  The  ideal  membership. 

III.  The  ideal  way  of  doing  the  work. 

IV.  The  ideal  means  of  entertainment. 

THE  RESPONSIBILITIES  OF  A  STUDENT 

I.  To  his  parents, 

il.  To  his  fellow  students. 

III.  To  the  school. 

IV.  To  truth  and  law. 
V.  To  himself. 

MY  FAVORITE  POEM :    "  The  Ancient  Mariner." 

I.   What  it  is.  (A  weird  poetic  tale.) 
II.    Its  style. 

A.  Fantastic  imagery. 

B.  Quaint  diction. 

C.  Beautiful  imagery. 

D.  Charming  music. 
III.    Its  thought. 

A.  Playful  or  serious  ? 

B.  What  the  poem  may  mean. 

THE  BEST  DAY  OF  THE  YEAR 

I.    The  origin  and  purpose  of  Thanksgiving  Day. 

II.  What  Thanksgiving  means  to   the  home   and  the 
family. 

III.  What  Thanksgiving  means  to  the  nation. 

A.  By  causing  people  to  think  of  their  neighbors. 

B.  By  causing  people  to  think  of  their  God. 


CHAPTER  V 
ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

LESSON   56 

ARGUMENTATION 

• 

Argumentation    is   the   kind   of    discourse   that 
shows  why  a  statement  is  true,  or   is  not   true ; 

Definition  wh^  a  theory  is  reasonable,  or  is  not 
and  Pur-  reasonable ;  or  why  a  thing  should  be 
done,  or  should  not  be  done.  Thus,  ar- 
gumentation may  deal  with  a  question  of  fact,  with 
a  question  of  theory,  or  with  a  question  of  policy. 
Furthermore,  in  all  cases  the  subject  of  argumen- 
tation is  a  proposition ;  that  is,  a  statement  having 
a  subject  and  a  predicate  ;  for  example,  Mr.  Brown 
stole  Mr.  Smith's  money  (fact) ;  The  Darwinian 
theory  of  evolution  is  not  reasonable  (theory) ;  Man- 
ual training  should  be  taught  in  our  high  school 
(policy).  Finally,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  the  chief 
purpose  of  argumentation  is  to  persuade  the  reader 
or  hearer ;  therefore  argumentation  is  dependent 
upon  proof,  —  the  one  who  argues  usually  uses 
such  words  as  because,  for,  and  therefore.  Occas- 
ionally, as  we  learned,  exposition  may  deal  with 
a  proposition,  but  the  purpose  of  exposition  in  such 

124 


ARGUMENTATION  125 

a  case  is  to  explain  what  the  proposition  means ; 
the  purpose  of  argumentation  is  to  persuade  the 
reader  or  hearer  that  the  proposition  is  true. 

Argumentation  is  sometimes  thought  of  as  formal 
debate,  and  as  such  it  seems  to  be  a  form  of  com- 
position reserved  for  congresses,  legisla-  N0tNec_ 
tures,  and  debating  societies.  This  notion  essarily 
is  altogether  wrong.  When  a  small  boy 
tries  to  convince  his  parents  that  he  should  wear 
long  trousers,  he  uses  argumentation ;  and  when 
pupils  try  to  persuade  the  superintendent  to  dis- 
miss school  that  they  may  attend  a  circus,  they  use 
argumentation. 

We  have  seen  that  often  description,  narration, 
and  exposition  are  all  found  in  a  single  piece  of 
discourse.  Argumentation  unites  no  less  Ar  umen_ 
readily  with  other  kinds  of  composition.  tation 
We  use  some  pure  argumentation :  we  ^th^jjjj^ 
also  use  much  discourse  that  contains  Forms  of 
only  an  element  of  argumentation.  Such 
discourse  may  be  termed  argumentative-expository, 
argumentative-narrative,  or  argumentative-descrip- 
tive. Thus  an  engineer  might  combine  argumenta- 
tion (stated  or  implied)  with  exposition  if  he  were 
to  explain  how  a  wreck  was  caused  by  conditions 
not  under  his  control.  (Argument:  He  should  not 
be  blamed.)  The  village  gossip  might  combine 
argumentation  (stated  or  implied)  with  narration 
by  telling  stories  detrimental  to  a  person's  reputa- 


126  ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING 

tion.  (Argument:  The  person's  character  is  not 
good.)  The  real  estate  agent  might  combine  argu- 
mentation (stated  or  implied)  with  description  by 
describing  a  piece  of  property.  (Argument :  It 
should  be  bought.)  Exposition  usually  enters  into 
argumentation  much  as  description  enters  into  nar- 
ration, for  it  is  usually  necessary  in  argumentation 
to  explain  the  meaning  of  words  and  statements 
that  might  not  be  clear. 

The  first  part  of  an  argumentative  composition 
should  state  the  subject  under  discussion.  Many 
Pro  osition  misunderstandings  and  much  bad  feeling 
stated  would  be  avoided  if  people  would  know 
definitely  and  say  definitely  what  they 
are  arguing  about.  Suppose,  for  instance,  that  the 
students  of  a  high  school  are  indignant  because  the 
superintendent  has  suspended  a  popular  student  for 
cheating  in  examinations.  The  students  may  think 
that  the  suspended  student  did  not  cheat.  To  them 
the  argument  is  about  the  question  of  fact :  Did  the 
student  cheat  f  The  superintendent  may  know  that 
the  student  cheated,  and  he  may  not  know  that  the 
students  think  he  did  not  cheat.  He  may  think 
that  the  students  disagree  with  him  on  the  question 
of  policy,  Should  a  student  be  suspended  for  cheating  ? 
In  cases  of  this  kind  the  trouble  would  be  settled 
at  once  if  some  one  would  state  the  proposition ;  that 
is,  tell  definitely  what  the  argument  is  about.  If  a 
public  speaker  is  addressing  an  audience  that  is  very 


ARGUMENTATION  127 

much  opposed  to  his  opinion,  perhaps  he  may  not 
let  the  audience  know  in  the  beginning  of  his  ar- 
gument whether  he  intends  to  defend  or  to  oppose 
the  proposition.  He  may  lead  his  hearers  to  his 
conclusion  by  first  convincing  them  of  the  validity 
of  some  of  his  reasons  for  believing  as  he  does. 
However,  if  he  is  a  good  speaker,  he  will  let  the 
audience  know  what  he  is  going  to  talk  about  as 
soon  as  he  begins  to  speak ;  and  usually  he  will  let 
them  know  at  once  whether  he  intends  to  defend 
the  proposition  or  to  oppose  it. 

TWO  METHODS  IN  ARGUMENTATION 

It  was  said  above  that  the  purpose  of  argumen- 
tation is  to  persuade  a  person  that  a 
statement  is,  or  is  not,  true;  that  a  theory 
is,  or  is  not,  reasonable  ;  or  that  a  thing  pealing  to 
should,  or  should  not,  be  done.  Now  we  B  *^°~ 
may  ask,  How  is  this  to  be  done  ? 

Sometimes  it  may  be  done  by  reasoning  alone: 
sometimes  by  reasoning  and  by  appealing  to  the 
emotions.  Most  people  like  to  think  that  the 
argument  which  causes  them  to  believe  a  proposi- 
tion, consists  only  of  reasoning ;  that  they  decide 
as  they  do  because  of  the  proofs  that  are  given  and 
not  because  of  the  appeals  that  are  made  to  their 
emotions.  Usually,  however,  people  are  influenced 
much  in  their  decisions  by  the  emotional  appeal  of 
an  argument. 


128  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

If  one  argues  in  an  earnest,  straightforward, 
frank  style,  he  may  persuade  his  hearer  or  reader 
Appealing  ^°  ^avor  or  oppose  the  proposition  more 
to  the  by  his  emotional  appeal  than  by  his  rea- 
soning. Often  a  teacher  is  persuaded 
more  by  the  way  a  pupil  argues  (perhaps  in  self- 
defense)  than  by  the  proof  that  he  offers.  The 
emotional  appeal  that  comes  from  an  earnest,  sin- 
cere style  is  perhaps  more  persuasive  in  oral  than 
in  written  argumentation. 

An  appeal  to  the  emotions  in  defense  of  a  propo- 
sition may  also  be  made  by  the  use  of  the  mixed 
forms  of  discourse  that  are  illustrated  above  (de- 
scriptive-argumentative, narrative-argumentative, 
and  expository-argumentative).  For  example,  a 
lawyer  might  arouse  the  sympathy  of  the  jury  in 
behalf  of  his  client  by  telling  of  a  noble  deed  that 
the  man  once  performed.  The  narrative  would 
not  only  arouse  the  emotions  of  the  jurors,  but  it 
would  also  carry  the  implied  argument  that  the 
man  should  be  treated  with  justice  or  with 
leniency. 

The  second  element  in  argumentation,  and  the 

more  essential  one,  is  reasoning.     Reasoning  is  a 

process  of  thinking  by  which  the  truth 

ing    or  falsity  of  a  proposition  is  shown  by 

means  of  certain  proofs,  or  reasons.     Two  kinds 

of  reasoning  are  to  be  considered :  inductive  and 

deductive. 


INDUCTIVE  REASONING  129 

Inductive  reasoning  is  reasoning  from  particular 
facts  to  a  general  law,  or  proposition,  called  the 
conclusion.  Inductive  reasoning  is  syn-  inductive 
thetic ;  that  is,  it  builds  up  the  law  (the  Reasoning 
proposition)  by  giving  particular  instances  in  which 
that  law  is  true.  It  is  by  inductive  reasoning  that 
we  have  established  most  of  our  laws  in  the  natural 
sciences.  We  have  proved  the  proposition,  Wild 
geese  fly  south  in  winter,  by  inductive  reasoning, 
for  we  have  noted  particular  instances,  and  from 
the  particular  facts  we  have  reasoned  to  the  propo- 
sition. If  the  student  wishes  to  prove  the  propo- 
sition, Secret  societies  are  injurious  in  high  schools, 
he  probably  will  use  much  inductive  reasoning; 
that  is,  he  will  give  examples  from  his  own  ex- 
perience and  from  the  experience  of  others. 

Inductive  reasoning  is  much  used,  and  it  is  a 
good  kind  of  reasoning  if  enough  particular  in- 
stances are  considered ;  however,  a  person  is  likely 
to  conclude  that  a  general  proposition  is  true  be- 
fore he  has  considered  enough  facts.  More  par- 
ticular facts  might  be  necessary  to  persuade  a  reader 
to  believe  the  conclusion  in  the  following  example 
of  inductive  reasoning:  — 

"  A  black  cat  crossed  my  path  on  Friday  and  I  broke  my 
arm  that  evening.  A  black  cat  crossed  Mr.  Brown's  path 
on  Friday  and  his  house  burned  the  next  day.  A  black  cat 
crossed  my  sister's  path  on  Friday  and  she  had  the  measles 
the  next  week.  In  fact,  I  have  never  heard  of  an  instance 
in  which  bad  luck  did  not  come  to  a  person  whose  path  was 


130  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

crossed  by  a  black  cat  on  Friday.  For  these  reasons  we 
may  believe  that  a  person  will  be  unlucky  if  a  black  cat 
crosses  his  path  on  Friday." 

The  particular  facts  used  in  inductive  reasoning 
may  be  taken  from  the  observation  and  experience 
of  the  one  who  seeks  to  prove  that  his  proposition 
is  true,  or  they  may  be  taken  from  the  observation 
and  experience  of  others.  Historical  facts  are 
sometimes  used.  Naturally,  the  better  the  author- 
ity the  better  the  proof ;  hence  great  students  and 
reliable  books  may  be  quoted  to  advantage.  Charles 
Darwin  would  be  better  authority  than  an  obscure 
fisherman  for  a  statement  of  particular  facts  re- 
garding the  evils  that  result  from  having  a  cat 
cross  one's  path  on  Friday. 

Deductive  reasoning  is  reasoning  from  a  general 
law  or  proposition,  to  a  particular  fact,  called  the 
Dedu:tive  conclusion.  Deductive  reasoning  is  ana- 
Reasoning  lytical  because  it  deduces  a  particular 
proposition  from  a  general  proposition  or  law. 
The  purpose  of  deductive  reasoning  is  to  prove 
that  a  proposition  is  true  by  showing  that  it  is 
governed  by  a  law  that  is  true;  the  theory  being 
that  a  thing  (proposition)  is  true  if  it  is  a  part  of 
a  thing  (law),  all  parts  of  which  are  true.  In  de- 
ductive reasoning,  a  "  reason  "  is  usually  given  to 
show  that  the  proposition  is  governed  by  the  law. 

It  is  often  hard  for  a  student  to  analyze  deductive 
reasoning  because  the  general  proposition,  or  law, 


DEDUCTIVE   REASONING  131 

is  usually  not  stated.  If  a  child  says,  "  I  should 
not  tease  the  cat  because  Mother  told  me  not  to/' 
he  uses  deductive  reasoning.  The  general  proposi- 
tion, or  law,  from  which  he  deduces  his  conclusion, 
is,  /  should  not  do  what  Mother  tells  me  not  to  do. 
This  law  is  implied  but  not  stated.  He  shows  that 
the  particular  proposition,  "  I  should  not  tease  the 
cat,"  is  governed  by  the  law,  when  he  gives  his 
reason,  "  because  Mother  told  me  not  to  tease  the 
cat "  ;  hence  he  proves  his  particular  proposition 
by  showing  that  it  is  governed  by  a  general 
proposition,  or  law.  If  a  person  says,  "  I  shall  be 
unlucky  because  a  black  cat  crossed  my  path  on 
Friday,"  he  uses  deductive  reasoning.  He  assumes 
the  truth  of  all  parts  of  the  implied  general 
proposition,  One  will  be  unlucky  if  a  black  cat  crosses 
his  path  on  Friday.  Then  he  proves  that  his  par- 
ticular proposition,  "I  shall  be  unlucky,"  is  true 
(if  the  general  proposition  is  true)  by  giving  his 
reason,  "  because  a  black  cat  crossed  my  path  on 
Friday,"  for  this  reason  shows  that  the  particular 
proposition  is  governed  by  the  general  proposition, 
or  law. 

Hard  thinking  will  show  the  student  that  a 
process  of  deductive  reasoning  necessarily  consists 
of  three  parts,  or  propositions.  These  The 

three  parts  are  technically  called  "  a  syl-  Syllogism 
logism."  The  general  proposition,  or  law,  is  called 
"  the  major  premise."  The  major  premise  is  often 


132  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

implied,  not  expressed.  The  "  reason/'  or  second 
proposition,  is  technically  called  "  the  minor  prem- 
ise." The  third  proposition,  the  proposition  to  be 
proved,  is  called  "  the  conclusion." 

Example :  — 

Honesty  is  good  policy  because  it  establishes  confidence. 
Implied  major  premise :  It  is  good  policy  to  establish  con- 
fidence. 

Minor  premise :  Honesty  establishes  confidence. 
Conclusion  :  Honesty  is  good  policy. 

ERRORS  IN  REASONING 

Every  one  reasons.  We  reason  inductively  and 
deductively.  Reasoning  is  commoner  than  clam 
shells.  Good  reasoning,  however,  whether  inductive 
or  deductive,  is  not  so  common  as  one  might  sup- 
pose. 

As  we  have  seen,  the  common  error  in  inductive 
reasoning  is  to  draw  a  general  conclusion  without 
Errors  in  considering  a  sufficient  number  of  partic- 
inductive  ular  facts.  We  conclude,  "  One  will  be 
Reasoning  uniucky  jf  a  black  cat  crosses  his  path  on 
Friday,"  before  we  have  examined  enough  partic- 
ular facts  really  to  prove  that  general  proposition. 
Errors  in  Three  common  errors  are  made  in  de- 
Deductive  ductive  reasoning ;  i .  In  the  major  prem- 
ung  ise :  A  general  proposition,  or  law,  is 
sometimes  assumed  to  be  true  when  it  is  not 
true. 


ERRORS  IN  REASONING  133 

2.  In  the  minor  premise  :  A  reason  is  sometimes 
assumed  to  be  true  when  it  is  not  true. 

3.  In  the  conclusion:  A  conclusion  is  sometimes 
assumed  to  be  governed  by  the  general  proposition, 
or  law,  when   it  is   not   necessarily  so  governed. 

I.  Perhaps  the  most  common  error  in  deductive 
reasoning  is  to  assume  that  a  general  proposition 
(stated  or  implied)  is  true  when  it  is  not  necessarily 
true.  If  a  student  writes,  "  The  custom  of  prize 
giving  is  bad  for  a  school  because  it  creates  a  spirit 
of  rivalry/'  he  assumes  the  truth  of  the  in  the 
implied  general  proposition,  A  spirit  of  Major 
rivalry  is  bad  for  a  school.  If  this  implied 
general  proposition  is  untrue,  the  reasoning  is  not 
good.  Suppose  that  the  student  believes  this  im- 
plied general  proposition  to  be  true  and  that  the 
reader  of  the  student's  argument  does  not  believe  it 
to  be  true :  the  student  could  not  persuade  his 
reader  to  believe  his  proposition,  "  The  custom  of 
prize  giving  is  bad  for  a  school,"  until  he  had  con- 
vinced him  of  the  truth  of  the  implied  general  prop- 
osition. The  following  syllogism  shows  exactly 
the  various  steps  in  the  argument :  — 

Implied  major  premise :  A  spirit  of  rivalry  is  bad  for  the 
school.  ( Unsubstantiated.) 

Minor  premise:  The  custom  of  prize  giving  creates  a 
spirit  of  rivalry. 

Conclusion :  The  custom  of  prize  giving  is  bad  for  the 
school. 


134  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

2.  A  reason  is  sometimes  assumed  to  be  true 
when  it  is  not  true.     If  a  person  says,  "  We  should 
not  begin  work  on  Friday  because  Friday  is  an 
unlucky  day,"   he  may  not  persuade  his  reader  to 
in  the          believe  the  proposition,  "We  should  not 
Minor         begin  work  on  Friday,"    unless    he  can 

prove  to  him  that  the  reason  is  true.  The 
following  syllogism  shows  exactly  the  various  steps 
in  the  argument :  — 

Implied  major  premise:  We  should  not  begin  work  on  an 
unlucky  day. 

Minor  premise :  Friday  is  an  unlucky  day.  (Unsubstantiated.) 
Conclusion :  We  should  not  begin  work  on  Friday. 

3.  A   conclusion  is   sometimes   assumed   to   be 
governed  by  a  general  law  when  it  is  not  necessarily 
governed  by  that  law.     If  a  student  writes,  "  We 
should  have  a  high  school  baseball  team  because  we 
cannot  do  the  best  work  unless  we  have  physical 
exercise,"  he  attempts  to  reason  deductively,  but 
in  the         his  conclusion  is  not  really  governed  by 
Conclusion   hjs  implied  general  proposition,  We  should 
do  the  best  work.     The  conclusion  cannot  be  deduced 
from  the  implied    general  proposition  unless  the 
reason  is  changed.     The  conclusion  might  be  logical 
if  the  reason  were,  "  because  we  cannot  do  the  best 
work  without  the  exercise  that  we  should  get  from 
playing  baseball."     Of  course  the  logical  conclusion 
in  the  reasoning  given  above  is,  We  should  have 


JUDGMENT  IN  ARGUMENTATION  135 

physical  exercise.     The  following  syllogism  shows 
exactly  the  various  steps  in  the  argument :  — 

Implied  major  premise  :  We  should  do  the  best  work. 

Minor  premise :  Physical  exercise  is  necessary  to  the  best 
work. 

Correct  Conclusion  :  We  should  have  physical  exercise. 

Incorrect  Conclusion  :  We  should  have  a  high  school  base- 
ball team. 

GOOD  JUDGMENT  IN  ARGUMENTATION 

Perhaps  the  best  advice  that  can  be  given  a 
student  to  help  him  to  write  an  argument  that  will 
persuade  the  hearer  or  reader  of  the  truth  of  the 
proposition,  is  this  :  Use  good  judgment.  Use  good 
judgment  in  choosing  a  style  of  discourse  that  will 
convince  by  its  emotional  appeal.  Use  good  judg- 
ment in  choosing  reasons  that  are  consistent  with 
facts  and  with  experience.  Use  good  judgment  in 
drawing  conclusions,  that  the  conclusions  may  not 
be  merely  assertions  of  personal  opinion.  Use  good 
judgment  in  not  attempting  to  prove  too  much,  for 
it  is  better  thoroughly  to  prove  one  thing  than 
partly  to  prove  many  things. 

Example :  — 

A  student  once  wrote,  "Our  city  ought  to  have  a  new 
high  school  building.  The  one  we  have  is  altogether  too 
small  and  it  is  not  well  adapted  to  its  purpose.  The  city 
can  well  afford  to  construct  a  new  building,  and  not  to  do  so 
shows  a  lack  of  public  spirit.  Those  who  oppose  the  con- 
struction of  such  a  building  are  either  stingy  or  indifferent 
to  the  best  interests  of  the  city." 


136  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

One  of  the  citizens  might  reply,  "  You  do  not  prove  what 
you  say.  Your  reasons  are  not  consistent  with  facts.  The 
city  cannot  afford  to  construct  a  new  building,  and  there  are 
many  good  citizens  who  oppose  the  construction  of  a  new 
building  because  they  think  that  the  building  which  we  have 
is  well  adapted  to  its  purpose  and  that  the  construction  of  a 
new  building  would  needlessly  burden  the  city  with  debt. 
Furthermore,  it  seems  to  me  that  you  show  over-hasty  judg- 
ment in  criticising  our  citizens  without  inquiring  into  the 
facts." 

•  The  student's  argument  might  be  sound  if  the 
reasons  were  supported  by  convincing  proof.  The 
first  reason,  "  The  one  we  have  is  too  small  and  it 
is  not  well  adapted  to  its  purpose,"  might  be  sup- 
ported by  examples  of  the  large  classes  and  the 
small  rooms ;  by  explanations  of  how  confusion 
and  disorder  are  caused  by  the  darkness  of  the 
halls ;  by  comparisons  of  the  building  with  high 
school  buildings  in  other  cities ;  and  by  the  opinions 
of  prominent  men.  The  second  reason,  "  The  city 
can  well  afford  to  construct  a  new  building,"  might 
be  supported  by  statistics  showing  the  wealth  of 
the  city  and  the  amount  of  money  given  to  the 
various  departments  of  the  city;  and  by  compari- 
sons of  the  financial  condition  of  the  city  with  that 
of  other  cities. 

LESSON  57 

Exercise  :  Criticise  the  reasoning  in  the  following 
statements.  If  the  reasoning  is  not  good,  tell  why. 
If  the  reasoning  could  be  made  better,  show  how. 


THEME   ASSIGNMENT  137 

Tell  what  kind  of  reasoning  is  used  in  each  example. 
Use  technical  terms  in  your  discussions. 

1.  Debating  societies  are  of  no  benefit  to  schools,  because 
I  was  never  benefited  by  our  debating  society ;  James  says 
that  he  was  never  benefited  by  it ;  and  our  school  is  no  larger 
than  it  was  before  we  had  a  debating  society. 

2.  We  should  not  have  a  football  team  because  it  inter- 
feres with  the  work  of  our  debating  society. 

3.  Mr.  Brown  is  a  college  graduate,  and  he  is   a   poor 
business  man.     Mr.  Smith  never  went  to  college,  and  he  is 
a  good  business  man.     Therefore  a  college  training  unfits  a 
man  for  a  business  life. 

4.  The  custom  of  giving  Christmas  presents  should  be 
abolished.     People  often  spend  too  much  money  for  Christ- 
mas presents.     People  often  receive  Christmas  presents  that 
they  cannot  use. 

5.  Football  should  not  be   played,   because   people   are 
sometimes  injured  in  football  games. 

6.  A  person  who  cheats  in  examinations  should  not  be 
elected  class  president.     James  does  not  cheat  in  examina- 
tions.    Therefore  James  should  be  elected  class  president. 

LESSON  58 

Short  theme  assignment :  Write  an  argumenta- 
tive theme  setting  forth  one  reason  why  a  certain 
thing  should,  or  should  not,  be  done. 

Examples :  — 

HUSBANDS  IN  THE   KITCHEN  1 

The  Chicago  Women's  Club  wants  to  have  boys  in  the 
public  schools  trained  in  domestic  science.  The  theory  is 

1  From  the  New  York  Sun.  Written  by  Robert  Grier  Cooke. 
Copyright. 


138  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

that  if  boys  learn  the  elements  of  cookery  they  will  see  how 
difficult  the  art  is  and  what  obstacles  environ  the  successful 
compounding  of  culinary  recipes,  and  will  thereby  learn  a 
great  lesson  of  patience  which  will  stand  them  in  good  stead 
when  they  come  to  be  married.  "  It  will  be  a  great  advan- 
tage to  the  housekeeper,"  says  Mrs.  Marion  F.  Washburne, 
"  when  the  husband  understands  something  of  the  trials  of 
the  kitchen ;  and  to  train  a  husband  you  have  to  begin  early. " 

No  doubt  the  early  training  of  husbands  is  desirable,  and 
we  dare  say  that  philanthropists  will  yet  found  colleges 
which  will  give  the  degree  of  B.  H.  H.,  Bachelor  of  House- 
keeping and  Husbandry ;  but  will  it  be  wise  to  give  men, 
who  are  said  to  be  not  without  conceit  at  present,  the 
impression  that  they  know  something  about  cookery  ?  The 
fellows  are  bad  enough  now,  and  with  this  new  acquisition 
they  might  be  unendurable.  So  long  as  they  know  only  the 
rough  cooking  of  the  camp  and  boat  or  the  amiable  futilities 
of  the  chafing-dish,  all  is  well ;  but  once  breed  them  to  the 
housekeeping  business,  so  to  speak,  once  familiarize  them 
with  the  mysteries  of  the  kitchen,  and  ruin  will  ensue. 

In  nothing  is  a  little  knowledge  more  dangerous  than  in 
cookery.  The  pretense  of  it  at  present  hurts  nobody  and 
deceives  nobody,  although  it  must  be  a  great  strain  on  the 
gravity  of  waiters.  But  once  smear  a  boy  with  cookery,  once 
give  him  a  smattering  of  "domestic  science,"  and  farewell 
peace  and  welcome  war!  "Eliza  Ann,  my  dear,  that  duck 
should  have  been  taken  out  a  minute  and  a  half  ago." 
"  Faugh,  Rosamond,  how  that  cauliflower  smells !  Why  did 
you  not  remove  the  cover  ?  "  "  When  I  was  at  the  cooking 
school  we  never  were  allowed  to  broil  mushrooms  more 
than — "  one  can  hear  the  steady  patter  of  masculine  wis- 
dom and  hope  that  many  platters  may  be  chucked  at  its 
self-satisfied  noddle. 

No,  no;  home  with  a  trained  cook  husband  would  not  be 
a  home.  It  would  be  a  lunatic  asylum. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  139 

POLITE  LIES 

A  Student's  Theme 

It  seems  to  me  a  mistake  to  tell  polite  lies,  because  they 
destroy  one's  individuality.  Individuality  in  thinking  and 
acting  is  one  of  the  things  that  make  a  human  being  better 
than  a  mere  machine,  and  it  should  be  highly  valued.  We 
have  no  respect  for  the  person  who  does  not  seem  to  have 
his  own  individual  opinions  about  subjects  that  should  in- 
terest him  greatly. 

Now,  one  cannot  possibly  give  his  honest  opinion  upon 
any  subject  if  he  persists  in  giving  dishonest  opinions  on  the 
little  questions  which  he  is  asked  daily.  If  one  lady  asks 
another,  u  Do  you  think  my  new  hat  is  becoming  ?  "  the 
other  is  sure  to  reply,  "  Why,  it  is  simply  lovely,  and  so  be- 
coming 1"  While  she  is  saying  this  the  lady  is  really 
thinking  to  herself  that  she  never  saw  an  uglier  or  more 
unbecoming  hat  in  all  her  life.  Of  course,  the  first  lady  is 
highly  pleased  with  her  friend's  opinion,  and  is  perfectly 
satisfied  with  her  hat,  but  the  lady  who  told  the  polite  lie 
has  become  more  conventional  and  has  lost  some  of  her  in- 
dividuality. The  composition  teacher  says  to  a  student, 
"  Criticise  the  theme  I  have  just  read."  The  student  knows 
that  the  theme  was  written  by  his  best  friend,  and  he  does 
not  want  to  hurt  his  feelings,  so  he  says,  "  I  like  the  theme 
very  much:  it  has  a  good  tone."  He  thinks  to  himself,  "I 
never  heard  a  poorer  theme."  His  polite  lie  has  made  him 
less  worthy  of  our  respect  as  an  individual  with  the  ability 
to  think  for  himself.  One  may  think  it  rude  to  hurt  a  per- 
son's feelings  by  telling  the  bare  truth,  but  it  is  much  bet- 
ter to  do  this  than  to  lose  one's  individuality  by  telling 
polite  lies. 

The  discussion,  "  Husbands  in  the  Kitchen/'  is  a 
good  example  of  informal  argumentation,  —  the 


140  ARGUMENTATIVE   WRITING 

kind  that  we  generally  use.  It  begins  with  an  ex- 
planation of  what  the  proposition  is.  The  reason- 
ing is  both  deductive  and  inductive.  Primarily 
the  argument  is  based  on  one  reason  ;  and  it  might 
be  stated  in  a  syllogism  such  as  the  following :  — 

Implied  major  premise  :  Home  life  should  be  happy. 

Minor  premise  (the  reason} :  If  boys  were  taught  domestic 
science,  they  would  become  such  conceited  husbands  that 
home  life  would  not  be  happy. 

Conclusion :  Boys  should  not  be  taught  domestic  science. 

In  writing  this  theme,  the  student  may  first  use 
exposition  to  show  just  what  the  proposition  (con- 
clusion) is  which  he  wishes  to  prove.  The  assign- 
ment calls  for  only  one  reason ;  therefore,  the 
student  should  avoid  giving  more  than  one  reason. 
It  is  usually  preferable  to  use  simple,  everyday 
examples,  comparisons,  etc.,  in  proving  that  the 
reason  is  a  good  one. 

Suggested  subjects  :  — 

1.  High  school  students  should  have  some  drill  in  com- 
position   writing,   because   it   helps   to   make   them   think 
clearly. 

2.  We  should  avoid  the  habit  of  scolding   and   finding 
fault,  because  it  prevents  us  from  enjoying  the  good  things 
of  life. 

3.  Students  should  not  attend  parties  on  nights  preced- 
ing  regular   school   days,   because   the   practice  interferes 
greatly  with  school  work. 

4.  A  better  cloak  room  should  be  provided  for  our  school 
room,  because  the  present  one   is   not   well   suited  to   its 
purpose. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  141 

5.  An  attempt  should  be  made  to  bring  our  school  into 
contact  with   other   schools  by   means    of   entertainments, 
contests,  or  other  means,  because  such   contact   would   be 
of  great  educational  value  to  us. 

6.  High  school  students  should  attend  social  entertain- 
ments, such  as  parties  and  receptions,  because  the  training 
that  one  gets  in  such  entertainments  develops  judgment. 

7.  A  student's  credit  should  not  be  determined  entirely 
by  the  grade  he  makes  in  examinations,  because  he  often 
is  too  excited  in  examinations  to  tell  what  he  knows. 

LESSON   59 

Short  theme  assignment :  Write  an  argumenta- 
tive theme  setting  forth  one  reason  or  more  why 
a  certain  thing  is  true,  or  is  not  true. 

Example:  — 

THE  TRUTH  ABOUT  FISH   STORIES1 

It  is  constantly  said  that  they  [fishermen]  greatly  ex- 
aggerate the  size  of  the  fish  that  are  lost.  This  accusation, 
though  most  frequently  and  flippantly  made,  is  in  point 
of  fact  based  upon  the  most  absurd  arrogance  and  a  love 
of  slanderous  assertion  that  passes  understanding.  These 
are  harsh  words ;  but  they  are  abundantly  justified. 

In  the  first  place,  all  the  presumptions  are  with  the 
fisherman's  contention.  It  is  perfectly  plain  that  large 
fish  are  more  apt  to  escape  than  small  ones.  Of  course 
their  weight  and  activity,  combined  with  the  increased 
trickiness  and  resourcefulness  of  age  and  experience,  greatly 
increase  their  ability  to  tear  out  the  hook,  and  enhance 
the  danger  that  their  antics  will  expose  a  fatal  weakness 

1  From  Fishing  and  Shooting  Sketches,  by  Grover  Cleveland. 
Copyright,  1906,  Published  by  The  Outing  Magazine. 


I42  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

in  hook,  leader,  line,  or  rod.  Another  presumption  which 
must  be  regretfully  mentioned,  arises  from  the  fact  that 
in  many  cases  the  encounter  with  a  large  fish  causes  such 
excitement,  and  such  distraction  or  perversion  of  judgment 
on  the  part  of  the  fisherman  as  leads  him  to  do  the  wrong 
thing  or  to  fail  to  do  the  right  thing  at  the  critical  instant  — 
thus  actually  and  effectively  contributing  to  an  escape  which 
could  not  and  would  not  have  occurred  except  in  favor  of 
a  large  fish. 

Beyond  these  presumptions  we  have  the  deliberate  and 
simple  story  of  the  fisherman  himself,  giving  with  the 
utmost  sincerity  all  the  details  of  his  misfortune,  and  in- 
dicating the  length  of  the  fish  he  has  lost,  and  giving  in 
pounds  his  exact  weight.  Now,  why  should  this  statement 
be  discredited  ?  It  was  made  by  one  who  struggled  with 
the  escaped  fish.  Perhaps  he  saw  it.  This,  however,  is 
not  important,  for  he  certainly  felt  it  on  his  rod,  and  he 
knows  precisely  how  his  rod  behaves  in  the  emergency  of 
every  conceivable  strain. 

The  argument  in  Grover  Cleveland's  discussion 
is  based  primarily  on  two  reasons  (I  and  II  below). 
The  implied  major  premises  are,  That  should  be 
accepted  as  true  which  is  indicated  to  be  true  by 
presumptions ,  and  The  word  of  a  specialist  is  to  be 
accepted  as  authority.  The  argument  may  be  out- 
lined as  follows :  — 

Proposition  (the  conclusion  to  be  proved) :  The  accusation 
that  fishermen  greatly  exaggerate  the  size  of  the  fish  that 
they  lose  is  not  true ;  because 

I.   Presumptions  indicate  that  fishermen  do  not  exagger- 
ate; for 

A.   It  is  to  be  presumed  that  the  largest  fish  would 
be  best  able  to  make  their  escape. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  143 

B.   It  is  to  be  presumed  that  fishermen,  through  ex- 
citement, would  let  the  largest  fish  escape. 
II.   Fishermen,  as  specialists,  say  that  the  stories  are  true. 
NOTE.  —  In  the  outline  because  is  read  with  the  principal 
division ;  for,  with  those  that  are  subordinate. 

The  theme  that  you  write  should  be  accompanied 
by  an  outline,  like  the  one  gitfen  above,  showing  at 
least  the  principal  divisions  of  the  argument.  The 
argument  to  be  effective  should  not  be  based  en- 
tirely upon  the  personal  opinion  of  the  writer. 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

1.  The  accusation  that  fishermen  greatly  exaggerate  the 
size  of  the  fish  that  they  lose  is  true. 

2.  The  accusation  that  girls  are  vainer  than  boys  is  not 
true. 

3.  Too  much  work  is  required  of  sophomores. 

4.  High  school  secret  societies  are  detrimental  to  the 
welfare  of  a  school. 

5.  Coeducation  in  the  high  school  is  desirable. 

6.  It  is  better  to  attend  a  large  high  school  than  a  small 
one. 

1.  Usually  the  boy  who  spends  the  first  twelve  years  of 
his  life  in  the  country  has  a  better  chance  to  succeed  than 
the  boy  who  spends  the  first  twelve  years  in  the  city. 

LESSON  60 

Exercise  :  Prepare  for  recitation  the  discussion  of 
Special  Properties  of  Style,  beginning  on  page  353. 

LESSON  61 

Assignment :  Write  an  argumentative  theme  set- 
ting forth  reasons  why  a  certain  thing  should  (or 


144  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

should  not)  be  done,  or  why  a  certain  thing  is  (or 
is  not)  true.  Let  the  theme  be  accompanied  by  an 
outline  showing  at  least  the  main  divisions  of  the 
thought. 

NOTE.  —  The  teacher  will  determine  the  length  of  the 
theme.  .  . 

Example :  — 

CONCILIATION  WITH  AMERICA 

America,  gentlemen  say,  is  a  noble  object;  it  is  an  object 
well  worth  fighting  for.  Certainly  it  is,  if  fighting  a  people 
is  the  best  way  of  gaining  them.  Gentlemen  in  this  re- 
spect will  be  led  to  their  choice  of  means  by  their  com- 
plexions and  their  habits.  Those  who  understand  the 
military  art  will  of  course  have  some  predilections  for  it. 
Those  who  wield  the  thunder  of  the  state  may  have  more 
confidence  in  the  efficacy  of  arms.  But  I  confess,  possibly 
for  want  of  this  knowledge,  my  opinion  is  much  more  in 
favor  of  prudent  management  than  of  force,  —  considering 
force  not  as  an  odious,  but  a  feeble,  instrument  for  preserv- 
ing a  people  so  numerous,  so  active,  so  growing,  so  spirited 
as  this,  in  a  profitable  and  subordinate  connection  with  us. 

First,  Sir,  permit  me  to  observe  that  the  use  of  force  alone 
is  but  temporary.  It  may  subdue  for  a  moment,  but  it  does 
not  remove  the  necessity  of  subduing  again ;  and  a  nation 
is  not  governed  which  is  perpetually  to  be  conquered. 

My  next  objection  is  its  uncertainty.  Terror  is  not  al- 
ways the  effect  of  force ;  and  an  armament  is  not  a  victory. 
If  you  do  not  succeed,  you  are  without  resource :  for  con- 
ciliation failing,  force  remains ;  but  force  failing,  no  further 
hope  of  reconciliation  is  left.  Power  and  authority  are 
sometimes  bought  by  kindness;  but  they  can  never  be 
begged  as  alms  by  an  impoverished  and  defeated  violence. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  145 

A  further  objection  to  force  is  that  you  impair  the  object 
by  your  very  endeavor  to  preserve  it.  The  thing  you  fought 
for  is  not  the  thing  which  you  recover;  but  depreciated, 
sunk,  wasted,  and  consumed  in  the  contest.  Nothing  less 
will  content  me  than  the  whole  America.  I  do  not  choose 
to  consume  its  strength  along  with  our  own ;  because  in  all 
parts  it  is  British  strength  that  I  consume.  I  do  not  choose 
to  be  caught  by  a  foreign  enemy  at  the  end  of  this  exhaust- 
ing conflict ;  and  still  less  in  the  midst  of  it.  I  may  escape ; 
but  I  can  make  no  insurance  against  such  an  event.  Let 
me  add  that  I  do  not  choose  wholly  to  break  the  American 
spirit ;  because  it  is  the  spirit  that  has  made  the  country. 

Lastly,  we  have  no  sort  of  experience  in  favor  of  force 
as  an  instrument  in  the  rule  of  our  colonies.  Their  growth 
and  their  utility  have  been  owing  to  methods  altogether 
different.  Our  ancient  indulgence  has  been  said  to  be  pur- 
sued to  a  fault.  It  may  be  so;  but  we  know,  if  feeling  is 
evidence,  that  our  fault  was  more  tolerable  than  our  at- 
tempt to  mend  it,  and  our  sin  far  more  salutary  than  our 
penitence. 

These,  Sir,  are  my  reasons  for  not  entertaining  that  high 
opinion  of  untried  force,  by  which  many  gentlemen,  for 
whose  sentiments  in  other  particulars  I  have  great  respect, 
seem  to  be  so  greatly  captivated. 

—  BURKE  :  Speech  on  Conciliation  with  America. 

The  student's  argument  need  not  be  as  formal  as 
that  which  Burke  delivered  before  the  British  Par- 
liament :  it  may  be  written  in  the  informal  style  of 
the  arguments  quoted  in  the  preceding  assignments 
for  argumentation.  The  reasons  may  be  such  as 
the  student  might  give  if  he  were  talking  to  his 
parents;  but  they  should  be  stated  clearly,  illus- 
trated fully,  and  arranged  logically. 


146  ARGUMENTATIVE  WRITING 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

1.  The   Friday  following  Thanksgiving  Day  should   be 
recognized  in  the  public  schools  ao  a  vacation  day. 

2.  Teachers  should  not   assign  lessons   to  be  prepared 
during  vacations. 

3.  Students  who  support   themselves  by  working  while 
they  are  in  school  should  be  required  to  take  fewer  studies 
than  those  who  can  give  all  of  their  time  to  school  work. 

4.  Persons  who  intend  to  become  teachers  should  be  re- 
quired to  complete  a  high  school  course  or  to  do  an  equiva- 
lent amount  of  work  in  some  other  school  before  they  are 
allowed  to  teach  in  the  public  schools. 

5.  Studies  in  the  last  year  of  the  high  school  course  should 
be  elective. 

6.  The  suggested  special  tax  on  bachelors  should  not  be 
imposed. 

7.  Government  officers  should  be  appointed  to  inspect  and 
approve  pictures  before  they  are  displayed  before  the  pub- 
lic in  moving-picture  theaters. 

The  student  can  easily  outline  the  argument  in 
Burke's  speech,  because  the  first  sentence  of  each 
paragraph  (except  the  first)  is  a  topic  sentence. 
The  student's  outline  might  be  something  like  the 
following  :  — 

COMPULSORY  EDUCATION 

Proposition :  Children  of  appropriate  age  should  be  re- 
quired by  law  to  attend  school ;  because 

I.   Children  are  individually  benefited  by  the  training  that 
they  get  in  school ;  for 

A.  They  are  prepared  to  be  self-supporting. 

B.  They  are  prepared  to  be  intelligent  citizens  with  the 

ability  to  take  part  in  the  government. 

C.  They  are  prepared  to  enjoy  life. 


THEME  ASSIGNMENT  147 

IL    The  nation  is  benefited  by  the  education  of  the  chil- 
dren; for 

A.  It  is  made  more  prosperous. 

B.  It  is  made  more  progressive. 
(7.  It  is  made  more  durable. 

III.  Without   compulsory  education   some  children  might 
grow  up  illiterate  and  ignorant ;  for 

A.  Sometimes  children  do  not  see  the  importance  of 

education. 

B.  Sometimes  parents  are  selfish  or  disinterested. 


CHAPTER  VI 
LETTER  WRITING 

LESSON  62 
LETTER  WRITING 

It  sometimes  happens  that  a  student  writes  his 
school  themes  correctly  and  ignores  all  principles 
of  composition  when  he  writes  a  letter  that  is 
not  a  composition  assignment.  The  student  should 
realize  that  a  letter  is  intended  to  accomplish  a 
definite  purpose  and  to  produce  a  definite  impres- 
sion on  the  mind  of  the  reader.  He  should  realize 
not  only  that  a  letter  may  fail  to  accomplish  the  de- 
sired purpose  if  it  is  carelessly  written,  but  also 
that  it  may  suggest  that  he  is  either  ignorant  or 
impolite.  It  often  happens  that  a  carefully  written 
letter  secures  unexpected  advancement  for  a  young 
person,  and  that  a  carelessly  written  letter  some- 
times prevents  his  advancement. 

There  are  as  many  different  letter  forms  as  there 
are  purposes  for  which  letters  are  written.  Busi- 
ness letters  should  follow  the  form  used  by  the  best 
business  men:  good  judgment  requires  this  for  the 
sake  of  convenience  and  accuracy.  Formal  notes 
and  formal  letters  should  be  written  as  society  has 

148 


LETTER  WRITING  149 

dictated ;  not  only  because  the  form  is  convenient, 
but  also  because  another  form  might  be  considered 
discourteous  or  an  indication  of  ignorance.  Infor- 
mal social  letters  need  not  conform  so  closely  to  a 
prescribed  form.  Convenience  and  courtesy  require 
that  the  writer  should  adapt  the  form  of  the  letter 
to  the  purpose. 

There  is  some  disagreement  among  good  writers 
regarding  the  minor  details  of  letter  structure ;  for 
example,  some  writers  would  place  the  comma 
between  the  parts  of  the  heading,  the  address,  and 
the  superscription,  while  other  writers  would  not 
use  the  comma  between  these  parts  unless  it  were 
necessary  to  make  the  meaning  clear.  In  cases  of 
this  kind,  where  there  is  good  authority  for  more 
than  one  form,  the  student  should  choose  a  form 
that  is  reputable,  and  he  should  always  use  that 
form.  To  place  a  comma  after  the  first  line  of  a 
superscription  and  not  after  the  second  would  be 
illogical. 

Regarding  the  essential  elements  of  letter  struc- 
ture, however,  good  writers  agree.  All  agree  that 
the  first  part  of  a  business  letter  should  tell  what  the 
letter  is  to  be  about.  All  agree  that  a  business  letter 
should  have  six  parts  :  heading,  address,  salutation, 
body,  complimentary  close,  and  signature.  All  agree 
that  the  parts  should  be  so  placed  on  the  page  as  to 
make  the  letter  seem  neat  and  well  proportioned. 
The  .address  should  not  look  like  a  stamp  placed  in 


150  LETTER  WRITING 

one  corner  of  the  page :  the  arrangement  of  the 
parts  should  not  give  the  letter  a  patchwork 
appearance.  Furthermore,  all  agree  that  a  business 
letter  should  be  definite  and  concise ;  that  a  social 
letter  should  be  graceful  and  entertaining ;  and  that 
a  formal  note  should  be  conventional.  It  is  courte- 
ous to  inclose  a  stamp  with  a  letter  of  request, 
inquiry,  or  application,  and  to  make  no  mention  of 
the  stamp.  Of  course  a  stamp  should  not  be 
inclosed  with  a  commercial  letter,  a  social  letter,  or 
an  invitation. 

Examples :  — 

i.    A  BUSINESS  LETTER 

423  Crawford  Street, 

Ben  ton  Harbor,  Michigan, 
September  28,  1912. 

Messrs.  Clark  and  Haley, 
Chicago,  Illinois. 
Gentlemen : 

The  graduating  class  of  the  Benton  Harbor  High 
School  wishes  to  adopt  a  class  pin,  and  I  have  been  asked 
to  secure  suggested  designs  from  dealers.  There  are 
forty  members  in  the  class,  and  they  wish  to  select  a 
pin  that  will  cost  about  four  dollars.  As  you  advertise 
that  you  are  prepared  to  furnish  such  goods,  I  write  to 
you  for  suggestions  and  information. 

Yours  very  truly, 

James  T.  White 


AN  INFORMAL  SOCIAL  LETTER  151 

2.    A  FORMAL  SOCIAL  LETTER 

32  Elm  Street, 

Denver,  Colorado, 
July  17,  1913. 

My  dear  Professor  Harrison, 

I  am  sure  you  will  be  glad  to  know  that  I  secured 
a  position  as  primary  teacher  in  the  schools  of  Denver. 
I  have  first  grade  work  and  I  feel  sure  that  the  year 
will  be  a  pleasant  one. 

Please  let  me  thank  you  again  for  the  assistance  you 
gave  me  in  securing  the  position. 

Sincerely  yours, 

Mary  E.  Brown 
Professor  Charles  T.  Harrison, 
Greeley,  Colorado. 

3.    AN  INFORMAL   SOCIAL  LETTER 

Butler,  Indiana, 

August  6,  1914. 
Dear  Mother, 

We  reached  Butler  at  ten  o'clock  this  morning  and 
found  uncle  John  at  the  station  waiting  to  take  us  to 
our  camping  place.  Our  camp  is  in  order  now  and  we 
are  about  ready  to  see  whether  we  can  catch  some  fish 
for  supper. 

Now,  "  mommer,"  don't  worry  about  me.  A  doctor 
lives  near  us,  and  uncle  John  says  that  he  will  come  to 
see  us  every  day.  He  will  bring  your  letters  from  Butler. 

To-morrow  I  shall  write  a  longer  letter  to  tell  you 
about  our  first  night  in  camp. 

Your  loving  son, 

James 


152  LETTER  WRITING 

4.    A  SOCIAL  NOTE 

My  dear  Miss  Evermann, 

Will  you  kindly  excuse  Marie's  absence  from  school 
yesterday  afternoon  ?  Illness  prevented  her  from  being 
present. 

Sincerely  yours, 

(Mrs.)  Charlotte  James 
45  Fourth  Avenue, 
Wednesday,  June  26. 

THE  PARTS  OF  A  LETTER 

The  heading  consists  of  the  address  of  the  writer 
and  the  date  of  writing.  From  the  heading,  the 
The  Head-  one  who  receives  the  letter  can  tell  how 
ins  to  address  the  reply.  When  it  is  placed 

at  the  beginning  of  the  letter,  as  it  should  be  in 
business  letters  and  as  it  may  be  in  social  letters,  it 
should  begin  at  about  the  middle  of  the  first  line. 
In  social  letters,  the  address  and  date  are  some- 
times written  at  the  close  of  the  letter,  beginning 
at  the  margin. 

The  street  address,  if  there  is  one,  should  come 
first ;  next  should  come  the  name  of  the  city,  or 
town,  and  the  name  of  the  state ;  and  last,  the  date 
of  writing.  The  date  of  writing  should  always  be 
on  a  line  by  itself.  Note  carefully  the  punctuation 
of  the  headings  in  the  examples  given  above. 

The  address  consists  of  the  name  of  the  person 


THE   PARTS  OF  A  LETTER  153 

who  is  to  receive  the  letter,  and  his  address.  The 
first  line  of  the  address  should  begin  at  the  margin. 
Usually  it  should  begin  on  the  line  im-  The  Ad- 
mediately  following  the  last  line  of  the  dress 

heading,  but  it  is  sometimes  written  at  the  close 
of  the  letter,  beginning  at  the  margin  on  the  line 
below  the  signature.  The  latter  arrangement  is 
common  in  letters  of  friendship  or  courtesy  addressed 
to  persons  with  whom  the  writer  is  not  well  ac- 
quainted. In  familiar  letters  of  friendship,  the 
address  is  regularly  omitted.  Note  carefully  the 
punctuation  of  the  addresses  in  the  examples  given 
above. 

The  salutation  is  a  conventional  introductory 
phrase,  and  its  form  is  to  be  determined  by  the 
relation  between  the  writer  and  the  per-  The  Salu- 
son  addressed.  It  is  proper  to  use  only  tation 
salutations  that  custom  has  made  reputable.  Never 
coin  new  salutations.  The  following  are  the  usual 
forms  for  business  letters  :  — 

Dear  Sir  Gentlemen 

My  dear  Sir  Dear  Sirs 

Dear  Madam  Mesdames 

My  dear  Madam 

In  a  social  letter,  or  in  a  business  letter  addressed 
to  a  person  who  is  well  known,  one  of  the  following 
forms  might  be  used  :  — 

My  dear  Miss  Clark  Dear  John 

Dear  Miss  Clark  Dear  Cousin  Mary 


154  LETTER  WRITING 

Various  marks  of  punctuation  may  be  used  after 
the  salutation.  The  comma  is  the  least  formal. 
The  colon  is  appropriate  for  a  letter  of  business. 
Contrary  to  what  might  seem  true,  the  word  My 
makes  the  salutation  more  formal  and  ceremonious. 
Abbreviations,  except  Mr.  and  Mrs.,  should  not  be 
used  in  the  salutation.  The  salutation  should 
begin  at  the  left-hand  margin  of  the  paper. 

The  body  of  the  letter,  or  the  letter  proper,  may 
follow  the  salutation  directly,  but  it  usually  begins 

of 


The  Bod 

of  the          punctuation  that  follows  the  salutation. 

Letter          ^Q  ^Y^    ^  Q£  a  j3USjnegs  letter  should 


show  clearly  what  the  letter  is  to  be  about.  It 
is  well  to  avoid  the  habit  of  beginning  a  letter 
with  a  participle,  for  this  construction  is  usually 
awkward.  Worse  than  the  awkward  participial 
constructions,  however,  are  the  meaningless,  con- 
ventional expressions  that  the  untrained  write  be- 
fore they  begin  to  think.  The  "  I  take  my  pen 
in  hand,"  of  the  joke  book  is  hardly  more  crude 
than  such  uncomplimentary  sentences  as,  "  As  I 
have  nothing  else  to  do,  I  shall  answer  your  let- 
ter." The  last  sentence  of  a  letter  also  deserves 
special  comment.  Sometimes  the  complimentary 
close  may  be  used  as  a  part  of  the  last  sentence  ; 
for  example, 

Wishing  you  continued  success  in  your  work,  I  am 
Very  truly  yours, 


THE   PARTS  OF  A  LETTER  155 

However,  it  is  usually  better  to  have  the  body  of 
the  letter  end  with  a  complete  sentence ;  for 
example, 

I  wish  you  continued  success  in  your  work. 

Such  conventional  closing  expressions  as  "  Hoping 
to  hear  from  you  soon,"  and  "  Trusting  this  will 
receive  your  prompt  attention,"  have  lost  all  vital- 
ity that  they  once  might  have  had.  Avoid  ending 
a  letter  with  a  sentence  that  has  no  real  meaning. 

The  complimentary  close  is  a  formal  phrase 
which  custom  requires  at  the  end  of  a  letter.  It 
should  be  followed  by  the  comma,  and  -,. 

J  The  Com- 

the  first  word  only  should  be  capitalized,    plimentary 

The  nature  of  the  complimentary  close  is 
determined  by  the  relation  between  the  writer  and 
the  one  addressed.  The  forms,  "  Yours  truly/' 
"  Yours  very  truly,"  and  "  Very  truly  yours,"  are 
appropriate  for  business  letters.  The  expressions, 
"  Yours  respectfully,"  "  Respectfully  yours,"  etc., 
should  be  used  when  especial  respect  is  intended, 
as  when  a  person  in  authority,  or  a  committee,  is 
addressed.  In  social  letters  such  forms  as  the  fol- 
lowing may  be  used  :  — 

Yours  sincerely  Faithfully  yours 

Yours  cordially  Affectionately  yours 

Very  truly  yours  Your  loving  son 

The  signature  should  be  written  legibly  below 
the  complimentary  close.  If  a  lady  writes  to  a 


156  LETTER  WRITING 

stranger,  she  should  inclose  in  marks  of  parenthe- 
sis, her  title,  Miss  or  Mrs.,  that  the  reply  may  be 
The  Signa-  properly  addressed ;  e.g.  (Miss)  Mary  T. 
ture  Brown. 

The  superscription  is  really  no  part  of  the  letter. 
It  consists  of  the  name  and  the  address  of  the  per- 
The  Super-  son  who  is  to  receive  the  letter.  It 
scription  should  not  be  crowded  into  one  corner  of 
the  envelope,  but  should  be  so  placed  on  the  envel- 
ope as  to  seem  well  proportioned.  Of  course  it 
should  be  neat  and  perfectly  legible.  It  is  permis- 
sible to  omit  marks  of  punctuation  at  the  ends  of 
the  lines.  Courtesy  requires  such  forms  as  the  fol- 
lowing :  Messrs.  Haley  and  Clark  (not  Haley  and 
Clark) ;  The  Enterprise  Publishing  Company ;  (not 
Enterprise  Publishing  Company) ;  Professor  Charles 
T.  Harrison  (not  Prof.  Chas.  T.  Harrison). 

Examples :  — 


From  James  T.  White, 
423  Crawford  Street, 

Benton  Harbor,  Michigan. 


Messrs.  Clarke  and  Hadley, 

127  Randolph  Street, 

Chicago,  Illinois. 


CAUTIONS  157 

The  following  form  is  sometimes  used  :  — 


Mr.  James  R.  Thompson 
Butler 

Berrien  County 
Indiana 


Care  of  Mr.  John  C.  Clark 


FIVE   CAUTIONS 

Especial  attention  is  called  to  the  following  con- 
structions :  - 

i.  Abbreviations 

Abbreviations  should  be  avoided,  especially  in 
the  body  of  a  letter ;  they  tend  to  cause  confusion, 
and  often  indicate  undue  haste  and  lack  of  courtesy. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect  Correct 

N.Y.  City  New  York  City 

4/7/'09.  April  7,  1909. 

Dear  Dr.  Smith  Dear  Doctor  Smith 

Dear  Prof.  James  Dear  Professor  James 

Resp'y  y'rs  Respectfully  yours 

2.  Ellipses 

The  habit  of  omitting  essential  words  is  neither 
courteous  nor  businesslike. 


158  LETTER  WRITING 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect  Correct 

24  Main  24  Main  Street 

Yours  of  the  5th  received  I  have  received  your  letter 

of  May  5. 

Wishing  you  continued  sue-  Wishing  you  continued  suc- 
cess, cess,  I  am, 

Yours  sincerely,  Yours  sincerely, 

Henry  T.  Brown.  Henry  T.  Brown. 

3.  Superfluous  Marks 

Unnecessary  marks  are  often  incorrectly  used  in 
the  heading,  the  address,  and  the  superscription. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect  Correct 

#  43,  Elm  Street    ) 

7L       .  _.      a,  43  Elm  Street 

No.  43  Elm  Street  j 

May  4th,  1909  May  4, 1909 

April  2nd,  1909  April  2,  1909 

4.  Numbers 

a.    House  numbers  should  never  be  spelled. 
Examples :  — 

Incorrect  Correct 

Two  hundred  forty-five  245  South  Fifth  Street 

South  Fifth  Street 

&.    Cardinal  numbers  of  dates  are  not   usually 
spelled  in  business  letters. 

Example :  — 

March  15,  1912. 


LETTER  OF  INQUIRY  159 

5.  Names  and  Titles 

a.  Titles  should  not  be  omitted 

Example :  — 

Messrs.  Silver,  Burdett  &  Company 

b.  It  is  courteous  to  spell  in  full  all  titles  except 
Mr.,  Mrs.,  and  Messrs. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect  Correct 

Dr.  Chas.  M.  Brown  Doctor  Charles  M.  Brown 

c.  Place  the  word  the  before  the  titles  Reverend 
and   Honorable,  and   insert   the  abbreviation  Mr. 
after  such  titles  unless  the  full  name  is  given  or  the 
initials. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect  Correct 

Rev.  James  B.  Brown  The    Reverend   James    B. 

Brown 

We  met  Honorable  Mr.  Smith     We  met  the  Honorable  Mr. 

Smith 

d.  It  is  courteous  to  use  the  word  the  with  the 
name  of  a  company  when  the  title  Messrs,  is  not 

appropriate. 

Example :  — 

The  American  Sugar  Company 

LESSON  63 
LETTER  OF  INQUIRY 

Assignment :  Write  a  letter  to  a  school  superin- 
tendent, a  business  man,  or  a  college  president, 


160  LETTER  WRITING 

asking  information  in  regard  to  a  prize  for  which 
you  intend  to  compete,  a  position  which  you  desire, 
or  a  college  which  you  contemplate  entering. 

Make  the  letter  concise  and  courteous.  Let  the 
first  part  state  definitely  what  you  wish  to  know ; 
e.g.  whether  the  vacancy  really  exists,  its  nature, 
and  the  qualifications  expected  of  the  applicant. 
Tell  why  you  ask  for  the  information.  The  letter 
might  also  contain  a  brief  statement  of  your  quali- 
fications ;  e.g.  your  sex,  age,  education,  and  expe- 
rience. 

In  all  letters,  be  careful  to  use  shall  and  will 
correctly.  See  pages  297,  298. 

NOTE.  —  It  will  be  well  for  the  teacher  to  make  this 
assignment  more  definite  by  supplying  the  name  of  the  per- 
son to  whom  the  letter  is  to  be  addressed,  and  by  describing 
the  purpose  of  the  letter. 

LESSON  64 
LETTER   OF  APPLICATION 

Assignment :  Write  a  letter  to  the  board  of  edu- 
cation, to  a  company  of  business  men,  or  to  a  board 
of  college  trustees  applying  respectively  for  a  position 
as  a  teacher,  a  position  with  a  business  firm,  or  a 
college  scholarship. 

Assume  that,  by  previous  correspondence,  you 
have  secured  definite  information  concerning  that 
for  which  you  apply.  Also  assume  that  the  per- 
sons addressed  have  never  seen  you.  Put  into  the 


LETTER  OF  APPLICATION  l6l 

letter  such  information  as  you  might  wish  if  you 
were  the  one  engaging  a  teacher  or  a  clerk,  or  assign- 
ing a  scholarship.  The  letter  should  not  be  a  mere 
enumeration  of  unrelated  facts.  The  material 
should  be  carefully  organized  and  accurately 
written  so  that  the  letter  will  be  grammatically 
correct  and  rhetorically  effective.  An  application 
for  a  scholarship  should  give  special  attention  to 
the  literary  attainment  of  the  applicant.  The  fol- 
lowing outline  will  suggest  some  of  the  most 
important  details. 

The  letter  should  contain  :  — 

I.    A  definite  statement  that  you  apply  for  a  particular 
thing ;  e.g.    "  Please  consider  me  a  candidate  for  a 
position  as  teacher  in  the  primary  grades  of  the  pub- 
lic schools  of  Muncie." 
II.   Qualifications. 

a.    Personal  description. 

NOTE.  —  It  is  better  to  avoid  personal  description  altogether 
than  to  make  it  seem  trivial  and  egotistical.  Such  de- 
tails as  sex,  age,  and  height  may  be  given. 

6.   Education. 

In  an  application  for  a  scholarship  or  a  position  as 
teacher,  state  where  you  have  received  your 
primary  and  your  secondary  education  and 
collegiate  training.  Mention  might  also  be  made 
of  other  means  of  education,  —  travel,  private  in- 
struction in  music,  painting,  etc. 

c.  Experience. 

NOTE.  —  This  in  most  cases  should  be  given  in  detail. 

d.  Recommendations  and  references. 


162  LETTER  WRITING 

1.  Copies  of  recommendations  may  be  inclosed  with 
the  letter,  and  mention  made  of  them  in  the 
letter. 

2.  The  exact  name,  title,  address,  and  position  or 
office  of  each  reference  should  be  given.     It  may 
also  be  well  to  tell  what  your  relation  with  the 
persons  has  been  that  qualifies  them  to  speak  of 
you.     If  you  apply  for  a  position  as  teacher, 

•  or  for  a  scholarship,  use  only  the  names  of 
reliable  educators  as  references.  Also  it  might 
be  well  to  say  that  you  have  asked  a  certain  per- 
son to  write  directly  to  the  Board  or  to  the  firm 
about  you.  This  part  of  the  letter  might  begin 
as  follows  :  "  If  you  wish  to  inquire  about  me  and 
my  fitness  for  the  position,  you  may  write  to 
the  following  persons  :  —  " 

III.  A  short  concluding  paragraph  might  be  written  offer- 
ing to  give  additional  information  if  it  is  requested  ; 
to  send  a  photograph  if  it  is  requested ;  and  to 
arrange  for  a  conference  with  the  Board  or  firm  in 
case  you  seem  to  be  the  chosen  candidate  and  such 
a  meeting  is  desired. 

LESSON  65 
LETTER    OF   REQUEST 

Assignment:  Write  a  letter  to  a  well-known  edu- 
cator or  business  man  asking  him  to  write  to  the  pres- 
ident of  the  Board  or  firm  to  whom  you  have  ap- 
plied, regarding  your  fitness  for  the  position.  Ask 
him  to  speak  of  your  personality,  your  scholarship, 
and  the  degree  of  success  that  you  would  probably 
have  if  elected  to  the  position  for  which  you  have 
applied. 


NOTE  OF  INVITATION  163 

This  letter  should  be  brief  and  very  courteous, 
since  you  are  asking  a  person  to  do  something  for 
you  without  compensation.  State  definitely  what 
you  want,  and  the  nature  of  the  position  for  which 
you  have  applied.  Describe  briefly  your  qualifica- 
tions for  the  position,  that  the  person  to  whom  you 
refer  may  have  all  necessary  data  to  write  the  let- 
ter intelligently.  Write  the  address  of  the  person 
to  whom  your  letter  is  sent  below  the  signature 
and  at  the  left  side  of  the  page,  as  in  the  second 
example. 

LESSON  66 
LETTER   OF  CONGRATULATION 

Assignment :  Write  a  letter  to  a  friend  congratu- 
lating him  upon  some  success  that  he  has  achieved, 
some  wise  decision  that  he  has  made,  or  some  good 
fortune  that  has  come  to  him. 

This  letter  should  be  short,  graceful  in  style,  and 
cordial  in  its  expression  of  good-will. 

The  degree  of  formality  used  depends  upon  the 
duration  and  intimacy  of  the  relationship  existing 
between  the  two  friends. 

The  address  should  be  placed  below  the  signature 
at  the  left  side  of  the  page. 

LESSON   67 
INFORMAL   NOTE   OF  INVITATION 

Assignment :  Write  an  informal  note  of  invita- 
tion. 


164  LETTER  WRITING 

This  note  should  be  like  a  social  letter  in  form. 
The  note  should  be  short  and  friendly,  with  the 
address  of  the  writer  and  the  date  placed  below  the 
signature  and  at  the  left  side  of  the  page.  Exam- 
ple four  will  suggest  what  the  form  might  be. 

Suggested  subjects:  Invite  a  friend  to  join  a  sleighing 
party  ;  to  spend  the  holiday  vacation  at  your  home ;  to 
spend  a  day  with  you  at  your  fishing  camp  ;  or  to  spend  an 
evening  at  your  home  that  he  may  meet  your  cousin. 

All  notes  of  invitation  should  be  answered 
promptly  and  in  the  form  in  which  they  are  writ- 
ten ;  i.e.  if  informal,  the  reply  should  be  informal ; 
if  formal,  the  reply  should  be  formal. 

LESSON   68 
FORMAL  NOTE  OF  INVITATION 

Assignment :  Write  a  formal  note  of  invitation 
to  a  banquet,  entertainment,  or  formal  reception 
given  by  a  club,  society,  or  class. 

A  formal  note  of  invitation  is  written  in  the 
third  person.  If  it  is  engraved  or  printed,  the 
second  person,  "  Your  presence,"  etc.,  is  necessary. 
A  formal  note  has  no  heading,  address,  salutation, 
complimentary  close,  or  signature.  All  numbers, 
except  the  street  address,  should  be  written  in 
words,  and  no  abbreviation,  except  Mr.,  Mrs.,  and 
Messrs.,  should  be  used.  The  address  of  the  one 
to  whom  the  reply  should  be  sent  may  be  placed 


CARD   OF  INVITATION  165 

below  the  invitation  and  at  the  left  side  of  the 
page.  The  date  on  which  the  invitation  is  issued 
may  be  placed  there  also  ;  for  example, 

Mr.  Charles  Baldwin,  Class  Secretary, 
243  Poplar  Street, 
June  the  twenty-eighth. 

The  invitation  should  contain  all  the  information 
that  might  be  desired  regarding  the  entertainment, 
such  as  the  nature  of  the  entertainment,  the  place, 
the  day,  and  the  hour. 

Examples :  — 

Mrs.  Janette  Smith  requests  the  pleasure  of  Mr.  Clarence 
James's  company  at  a  reception  to  be  held  in  Howard  Hall 
on  Monday  evening,  March  twenty-second,  from  eight  to  ten 
o'clock,  in  honor  of  the  birthday  of  her  son,  Mr.  Everett 
Smith. 

425  Mulberry  Street. 
March  the  sixteenth. 

Miss  Clara  Stewart  accepts  with  pleasure  (or  regrets  that 
an  engagement  prevents  her  from  accepting)  Mr.  and  Mrs. 
Charles  Clark's  kind  invitation  to  dinner  on  Tuesday  evening, 
January  the  tenth,  at  seven  o'clock. 

LESSON  69 
FORMAL  CARD  OF  INVITATION 

Assignment :  Write  a  reply  to  a  card  of  invita- 
tion. 

NOTE. —  The  reply  should  be  formal  in  the  third  person. 
See  the  last  lesson  for  an  example. 


1 66  LETTER  WRITING 

The  structure  of  formal  notes  and  cards  conforms 
to  local  usage  in  some  degree  and  varies  with  the 
caprice  of  fashion  as  well. 

Replies  should  always  be  sent  to  notes  of  invita- 
tion. Replies  are  not  expected  to  all  cards  of  invi- 
tation, but  a  person  should  remember  that  the  laws 
of  society  should  be  founded  on  the  law  of  kindness, 
and  he  should  send  a  reply  when  he  thinks  that  his 
reply  would  help  the  hostess  to  prepare  for  her 
guests.  In  most  localities  it  is  customary  to  send 
replies  to  cards  of  invitation  to  all  musical  enter- 
tainments and  receptions  given  in  private  houses. 
A  reply  should  be  sent  invariably  when  Please  re- 
ply, or  the  abbreviation  R.  S.  V.  P.  (Rtyondez  sil 
vous plait)  is  placed  on  the  card. 

Example  (Written  or  engraved  card) :  — 


Mrs.  William  Brant  James 

At  Home 

Wednesday,  March  tenth 
Music  at  five  o'clock  232  Whitmore  Avenue 


PART  II 
SPECIAL  FORMS  OF    DISCOURSE 


NOTE. — In  connection  with  the  work  of  Part  II,  a 
thorough  review  should  be  made  of  the  work  in  Part  III. 
The  teacher  will  determine  what  each  review  lesson  is  to 
be,  when  it  is  to  be  assigned,  and  how  it  is  to  be  prepared 
for  recitation.  Students  are  not  likely  to  be  drilled  too 
thoroughly  on  the  work  of  Part  III. 

Assignments  should  occasionally  be  made  for  themes 
upon  subjects  of  the  student's  own  choice.  Such  assign- 
ments give  variety  to  class  work  and  enable  the  student  to 
develop  ability  for  a  particular  kind  of  writing. 


CHAPTER  VII 
ORAL  COMPOSITION 

The  ability  to  make  a  short,  well-constructed 
speech  before  a  number  of  people  is  quite  as  useful 
and  important  as  the  power  to  express  the  same 
ideas  in  written  form.  To  every  one  there  come 
occasions  when  he  must  address  an  audience,  even 
if  it  is  only  to  take  part  in  a  club  discussion  or  to 
respond  to  an  after-dinner  toast,  and  at  such  times 
he  is  fortunate  if  he  has  learned  to  speak  clearly, 
easily,  and  without  embarrassment. 

The  chief  requisites  for  good  speaking  are,  of 
course,  a  thorough  knowledge  of  your  subject  and 
an  interest  in  it.  When  you  are  really  more  inter- 
ested in  telling  your  audience  about  your  subject 
than  you  are  in  yourself  and  your  probable  em- 
barrassment, you  will  find  that  you  can  think  as 
coolly,  rapidly,  and  accurately,  standing  before  them 
as  when  writing  a  composition  in  your  own  room. 
The  audience  will  become  a  stimulation  instead  of 
a  hindrance. 

Assignment :  a.  Prepare  yourself  to  speak  to 
the  class  for  five  or  ten  minutes  on  some  subject 
that  interests  you.  Take  some  topic  that  you 
might  naturally  talk  about  in  everyday  conversa- 
tion. 

169 


170  ORAL  COMPOSITION 

Do  not  try  to  memorize  a  speech,  but  know  be- 
forehand the  principal  divisions  of  your  thought. 
Learn  to  think  while  on  your  feet  and  to  choose 
appropriate  words  quickly. 

b.  Prepare  yourself  to  criticise  the  talks  of  your 
classmates. 

In  deciding  what  to  say  in  criticism  of  a  talk, 
ask  yourself  questions  like  these :  Was  the  talk  in- 
teresting? Why?  Was  the  talk  delivered  in  a 
straightforward,  effective  way  ?  Was  the  thought 
well  organized  ?  What  were  the  principal  divisions 
of  the  thought?  Was  the  sentence  construction 
good?  Were  the  words  well  chosen?  What  was 
the  best  feature  of  the  talk  ?  What  feature  of  the 
talk  was  least  good?  How  could  the  talk  have 
been  made  better? 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

1.  The  first   oral   composition :  how  the  student  con- 
structs it  and  how  he  feels  when  it  is  delivered. 

2.  Our  school  library :  what  it  is  and  what  it  might  be. 

3.  Schoolroom  ventilation. 

4.  Our  debating  society  :  its  nature  and  its  purpose. 

5.  The  social  training  that  a  high  school  course  should 
give. 

6.  Student  loyalty  to  the  school. 

7.  School  athletics. 

8.  Amateur  theatricals  in  the  high  school. 

9.  "  Cramming." 

10.  The  exceptional  student :  his  place  in  the  school. 

11.  The  Bible  in  the  public  schools. 

12.  Jane  Addams  :  her  life  and  work. 


ASSIGNMENT  171 

13.  Abraham  Lincoln  :  the  man  of  the  people. 

14.  Booker  T.  Washington  :  his  method  of  education. 

15.  Andrew  Carnegie,  Judge  Ben  B.  Lindsey,  or  William 
J.  Bryan. 

16.  The  Fourth  of  July  celebration. 

17.  Women  as  school  officers. 

18.  Examinations. 

19.  Some  needed  reforms  in  our  city. 

20.  The  theater :   its  influences. 

21.  The  International  Peace  Conference. 

22.  The  philosophy  of  fashions. 

23.  Advertising :  its  use  and  its  abuse. 

24.  The  immigration  problem. 

25.  How  the  poor  people  of  our  town  are  cared  for. 

NOTE  TO  THE  TEACHER.  — Every  student  should  have  some 
drill  in  oral  composition.  The  drill  may  be  made  a  part  of 
the  regular  composition  work.  If  the  work  is  taken  up  in  a 
serious  way  by  students  who  have  somewhat  overcome  the 
embarrassment  of  freshmen,  no  work  is  more  practical,  and 
usually,  after  the  first  few  lessons,  none  is  done  more  en- 
thusiastically. It  will  probably  be  best  for  students  to  be 
drilled  for  a  year  or  more  in  the  delivery  and  the  criticism 
of  short  talks  before  they  attempt  to  deliver  orations  or 
to  debate.  While  the  students  are  doing  the  first  part  of 
the  work  outlined  in  Part  II  (and  perhaps  while  they  are 
doing  the  last  part  of  the  work  outlined  in  Part  I),  they 
should  be  asked  to  talk  to  the  class  at  regular  intervals 
about  subjects  that  interest  them.  These  talks  should  be 
given  every  two  weeks  if  the  size  of  the  class  will  permit. 
The  talks  should  be  criticised  by  the  students  and  the 
teacher;  and  the  teacher  may  sometimes  criticise  the  criti- 
cisms of  the  students.  The  criticism  should  be  sympathetic, 
and  it  should  deal  with  the  good  features  of  the  talks  as 
well  as  with  those  that  are  not  good. 


CHAPTER  VIII 
THE  FABLE 

A  fable  is  a  short  allegorical  story  used  as  an 
illustration  of  a  general  statement,  called  the  moral, 
which  the  author  wishes  to  explain  or  prove.  Thus, 
a  fable  is  expository  or  argumentative  in  chief  pur- 
pose, but  chiefly  narrative  in  structure.  The  moral, 
either  stated  or  implied,  may  be  considered  as  the 
topic  sentence  ;  and  the  story  may  be  considered  as 
a  single  example  used  to  explain  that  topic  sentence 
or  to  prove  it.  ' 

A  fable  differs  from  an  anecdote  in  that  the 
characters  of  the  fable  are  presented  as  types  of  a 
class,  while  the  characters  of  an  anecdote  are  pre- 
sented as  individuals  with  particularizing  character- 
istics. An  anecdote  told  about  President  Lincoln 
would  show  one  or  more  of  his  personal  character- 
istics :  a  fable  told  about  a  president  would  show 
one  or  more  of  the  characteristics  of  presidents  con- 
sidered as  a  class,  but  it  would  not  show  the  per- 
sonality of  any  one  president. 

The  characters  of  fables  are  often  personified 
inanimate  objects  or  personified  lower  animals ;  for 
example,  the  characters  of  a  fable  might  be  foxes 
used  to  symbolize  crafty  men.  When  human  beings 

172 


ASSIGNMENT  173 

are  used  in  fables  they  symbolize  all  of  their  class 
or  kind ;  for  example,  the  characters  of  a  fable 
might  be  high  school  students  presented  not  with 
the  characteristics  of  individuals,  but  with  character- 
istics peculiar  to  all  high  school  students. 

The  fables  in  the  New  Testament  are  called  par- 
ables. Reformers  and  teachers  of  all  times  have 
made  much  use  of  fables.  By  means  of  them,  ab- 
stract truths  can  be  presented  in  graphic  form  so 
that  they  can  be  easily  understood.  No  better  way 
has  been  found  to  teach  the  elementary  laws  of 
conduct  in  the  lower  grades  of  schools  to-day  than 
through  the  use  of  ^Esop's  fables. 

Assignment :  Study  the  following  examples,  and 
write  a  short  fable  of  your  own. 

Examples :  — 

THE  MAN   AND  HIS   TWO  WIVES 

In  the  days  when  a  man  was  allowed  more  wives  than 
one,  a  middle-aged  bachelor,  who  could  be  called  neither 
young  nor  old,  and  whose  hair  was  only  just  beginning  to 
turn  gray,  must  needs  fall  in  love  with  two  women  at  once, 
and  marry  them  both.  The  one  was  young  and  blooming, 
and  wished  her  husband  to  appear  as  youthful  as  herself ; 
the  other  was  somewhat  more  advanced  in  age,  and  was 
anxious  that  her  husband  should  appear  a  suitable  match 
for  her.  So,  while  the  young  one  seized  every  opportunity 
of  pulling  out  the  good  man's  gray  hairs,  the  old  one  was  as 
industrious  in  plucking  out  every  black  hair  she  could  find. 
For  a  while  the  man  was  highly  gratified  by  their  attention 
and  devotion,  till  he  found  one  morning  that,  between  the 
one  and  the  other,  he  had  not  a  hair  left. 


174  THE   FABLE 

Moral :  He  that  submits  his  principles  to  the  influences 
and  caprices  of  opposite  parties  will  end  in  having  no  prin- 
ciples at  all.  —  AESOP,  Fables. 

THE  MAN  IN  TROUBLE 
A  Student's  Theme 

There  was  once  a  man  who  was  in  great  trouble,  for  he 
had  lost  the  person  who  was  all  the  world  to  him. 

His  learned  friend  went  to  him  and  said,  "  There  is  much 
left  in  life.  See  this  remarkable  book  that  I  have  brought 
you.  It  goes  far  toward  explaining  the  mysteries  of  life." 
The  man  looked  at  him,  and  wished  he  would  go  away. 

Then  the  minister,  who  was  a  very  good  man,  went  to 
him  and  said,  "  There  is  no  consolation  like  religion.  Do 
not  forget  your  prayers."  And  the  man  was  glad  when  the 
minister  left  him. 

At  last  a  friend,  who  was  neither  very  learned  nor  very 
good,  went  and,  with  tears  in  his  eyes,  said,  "  I'm  sorry," 
and  the  man  begged  him  to  stay. 

The  student  need  not  attach  a  moral  to  his  fable, 
but  he  should  make  the  purpose  of  the  fable  so  ap- 
parent that  the  reader  will  see  at  once  what  the 
moral  is. 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

I.    Fables  in  which  the  characters  are  lower  animals  or  in- 
animate objects. 
1.  a.  Fable  of  the  bees ;  b.  The  bird  convention  ;  c.  The 

frog  school. 

Moral:  An  organization  will  not  be  well  governed 
if  the  individuals  are  not  willing  to  sacrifice 
personal  interests  for  the  public  good. 


ASSIGNMENT  175 

2.  a.    Fable  of  the    flowers ;   6.   The   barnyard    fowls ; 

c.    The  barking  dog. 

Moral:  The  one  that  attracts  the  most  attention 
is  not  always  the  one  that  is  the  most  respected. 

3.  a.    Fable  of  the  painted  thistle ;  b.   The  white  crow ; 

c.    The  purple  cow. 

Moral:  Fine  clothing  cannot  conceal  bad  manners. 
II.    Fables  in  which  some  or  all  of  the  characters  are  human 
beings. 

1.  a.   The  high  school  graduate  and  his  country  parents  ; 

b.    The  man  who  had  been  to  New  York. 
Moral :  A  little  learning  is  a  dangerous  thing. 

2.  a.    The  farmer  with  the  vicious  horse ;  b.    The  stu- 

dent who  had  no  friends. 
Moral :  Learn  to  love  others  if  you  would  be  loved. 

3.  a.    The  girl  who  went  on  the  stage ;  b.    The  farmer 

who  moved  to  the  city ;  c.  The  housewife  who 
got  into  society. 
Moral :  All  is  not  gold  that  glitters. 

/Suggested  morals :  — 

1.  A  coward  is  a  poor  friend. 

2.  Actions  speak  louder  than  words. 

3.  A  flatterer  is  not  to  be  trusted. 

4.  Real  friends  are  not  to  be  bought  with  gifts. 

5.  Every  coward  is  ready  to  kick  a  dead  lion. 


CHAPTER  IX 
NEWS  WRITING 

Journalistic  writing  is  writing  for  the  news- 
papers and  news  magazines.  It  includes  all  the 
journalis-  material  that  appears  in  a  newspaper 
tic  Writing  except  the  advertisements,  anecdotes,  oc- 
casional short  stories,  etc.  It  is  of  two  clearly  dis- 
tinguished kinds :  news  writing  and  editorial 
writing.  News  writing  should  state  facts:  edi- 
torial writing  should  express  an  opinion.  Editorial 
writing  will  be  discussed  later. 

News  is  an  account  of  recent  events  or  condi- 
tions in  which  people  are  interested.  It  answers 
What  News  the  questions  Who  ?  What  ?  Where  ? 
Is  When?  and  Why?  Naturally,  the  best 

kind  of  news  is  that  which  interests  the  greatest 
number  of  people.  The  news  writer's  stories  are 
likely  to  be  given  prominence  of  place  and  space 
in  proportion  to  the  number  of  readers  that  they 
will  interest.  Of  course  the  nature  of  the  news- 
paper will  help  to  determine  the  value  that  a 
particular  piece  of  news  will  have.  A  village 
newspaper  might  publish  a  story  about  the  death 
of  Mr.  Brown's  cow,  while  a  large  city  paper  would 

176 


"HUMAN  INTEREST"  177 

not  mention  the  incident  unless  there  was  some- 
thing very  unusual  about  it. 

News  is  usually  divided  into  several  groups,  and 
in  all  but  the  smallest  newspapers  each  kind  is 
written  by  a  special  person  or  number  Kinds  of 
of  persons.  Different  reporters  write  up  writing 
general  and  political  news,  society  news,  sporting 
news,  court  news,  theatrical  news,  church  and  club 
news,  and  commercial,  market,  and  railroad  news. 

The  term,  u  news  item,"  is  applied  to  one  or 
two  sentences  of  news.  The  term,  "  news  story," 
is  applied  to  any  news  article  one  or  more  para- 
graphs in  length. 

Editors  say  that  good  news  writers  have  "  the 
news  sense "  ;  that  is,  they  have  the  ability  to 
recognize  the  things  that  will  awaken 
human  interest  and  appeal  to  the  human  man  inter- 
emotions.  If  a  city  news  writer's  assign-  est  Ele~ 
ment  is  to  get  the  news  of  the  railroads, 
he  may  in  two  hours  learn  of  twenty  things  that 
might  be  given  a  place  in  the  paper.  He  must 
estimate  the  value  of  each  incident  as  news,  and 
write  a  news  item,  a  news  story,  or  nothing  at  all, 
according  to  the  worth  of  the  incident  as  news. 
He  may  write  a  news  item  about  the  promotion 
of  a  man  in  the  car  shops.  He  may  write  nothing 
about  a  contract  for  the  construction  of  a  small 
freight  warehouse.  Perhaps  he  inquires  about 
an  accident  in  the  switch  yards  and  is  told  curtly 


178  NEWS  WRITING 

that  an  empty  passenger  car  was  wrecked  acci- 
dentally and  that  the  incident  is  of  no  importance 
to  any  one.  Suppose  his  curiosity  is  aroused  by 
the  curtness  of  the  reply,  and  that  he  learns  by 
further  investigation  that  a  tramp  was  killed  while 
stealing  a  ride  under  the  car.  If  the  reporter  has 
"  the  news  sense,"  he  will  see  in  this  incident 
material  for  at  least  a  short  news  story,  and  he 
will  try  to  get  interesting  details  regarding  the 
tramp  and  the  accident.  If  he  learns  that  the 
tramp  had  a  soiled  pocket  edition  of  Dante's 
Inferno,  he  will  have  material  for  a  first  page 
news  story. 

The  desire  to  publish  news  stories  that  will  in- 
terest a  large  number  of  people  has  led  some  news- 
papers to  exaggerate  details,  to  manufacture  news, 
and  to  publish  revolting  news  that  should  be  sup- 
pressed. All  newspapers  are  anxious  to  publish 
stories  about  accidents  and  disasters,  stories  of 
heroism,  stories  with  an  element  of  pathos,  stories 
regarding  the  management  of  public  affairs,  and 
stories  regarding  local  and  national  government. 
Most  newspapers  publish  stories  about  suicides, 
murders,  lynchings,  and  divorces  of  prominent 
people ;  but  dignified,  conservative  newspapers 
usually  suppress  brutal  and  revolting  details  in 
such  stories.  The  term  "  yellow  journalism  "  is 
applied  to  the  policy  of  those  newspapers  that 
manufacture  sensational  stories,  publish  the  details 


STRUCTURE  179 

of  heinous  crimes,  and  publish  scandal  stories 
merely  to  increase  the  sale  of  the  paper. 

The  "  news  sense,"  is  not  the  only  requisite 
of  a  good  news  writer :  he  must  also  have  the 
ability  to  write  in  an  impersonal,  disin-  impersonai 
terested,  fair-minded  way.  Suppose  an  Element 
aristocratic  society  leader  gives  an  elaborate  lunch- 
eon to  which  a  hundred  prominent  women  are 
invited.  Suppose  that  the  same  day  another 
woman,  less  prominent  socially,  gives  a  smaller 
and  less  formal  lunch  party.  Suppose  that  the 
society  editor  publishes  half  a  column  about  the 
second  luncheon  because  the  hostess  is  her  friend, 
and  only  an  eighth  of  a  column  about  the  first 
luncheon  because  she  dislikes  the  hostess.  Half 
the  women  invited  to  the  first  luncheon  might 
feel  the  slight,  and  the  society  editor  might  receive 
a  reprimand  from  the  managing  editor  because 
she  let  personal  feelings  influence  her  writing. 
The  impersonal  element  is  no  less  important  in 
news  of  other  kinds. 

The  structure  of  a  news  story  differs  from  that 
of  most  other  kinds  of  discourse  in  that  the  first 
paragraph  gives  the  essential  facts  in  The  struc- 
brief.  In  fiction  there  is  an  element  of  ture 

suspense  and  the  reader  is  not  sure  of  the  outcome 
until  he  reaches  the  end  of  the  story.  In  the  ora- 
tion the  last  is  the  part  of  greatest  interest.  In 
the  news  story,  however,  the  first  paragraph  tells 


180  NEWS  WRITING 

who,  what,  when,  where,  and  why.  The  editor 
knows  that  many  readers  may  care  for  only  a 
brief  statement  of  the  facts;  therefore  he  places 
these  first.  Those  who  are  especially  interested 
can  get  the  details  by  reading  further. 

The  style  of  a  news  story  is  determined  to  some 
extent  by  the  kind  of  news.  An  account  of  a  ball 

game  or  a  horse  race  should  contain  the 
The  Style       '          .  . 

technical  expressions  and  even  the  slang 

expressions  used  by  the  ball  players  and  the  horse 
racers.  An  account  of  a  play  should  contain  the 
technical  expressions  of  the  theater.  An  account 
of  a  lecture  should  be  dignified  and  scholarly. 
A  general  news  story  should  be  simple  and  straight- 
forward in  style ;  never  lofty  or  poetic. 

Each  newspaper  has  its  own  style  of  headlines. 
The  headline  writer  should  know  not  only  that  the 
headlines  should  give  the  substance  of 
the  news  story,  but  also  that  a  certain 
style  of  headlines  is  used  for  a  certain  kind  of 
story  and  that  each  headline  is  constructed  after  a 
particular  pattern.  For  example,  a  certain  news- 
paper may  use  five  kinds  of  "heads"  or  "banks" 
of  type;  and  the  first  kind  (the  largest  type  used) 
may  consist  of  two  lines,  each  containing  fourteen 
letters. 

An  experienced  news  writer  uses  a  notebook  but 
little  and  goes  about  his  work  so  quietly  that  his 
business  might  not  be  guessed.  He  is  careful  to 


SUPPLEMENTAL  READING  181 

get  proper  names  and  initial  letters  correct,  and  he 
jots  down  dates,  names  of  places,  and  other  details 
that  he  might  not  remember  accurately.  HOW  to 
When  he  is  by  himself,  he  writes  his  news  Gather 
story.  News 

A  word  of  advice  may  be  added  for  the  high 
school  boy  or  girl  who  seriously  contemplates  en- 
tering the  journalistic  profession.  First,  suppie- 
learn  all  you  can  about  contemporary  mental 
history.  Justin  McCarthy's  History  of 
Our  Own  Times  is  an  excellent  textbook,  but  much 
history  is  to  be  learned  from  current  magazines  and 
newspapers.  Second,  learn  who  are  the  leading 
men  and  women  of  to-day.  Learn  how  to  spell 
their  names  correctly.  Know  where  they  live ; 
about  how  old  they  are  ;  what  positions  they  fill ; 
what  they  stand  for ;  what  they  have  done.  Read 
biographical  sketches  in  the  better  magazines  and 
become  acquainted  with  Who's  Who  in  America  and 
Who's  Who  (for  the  world),  (books  to  be  found  in 
almost  every  good  library).  Third,  read  literature. 
Read  Hazlitt,  Macaulay,  and  Bagehot,  as  well  as 
Shakespeare.  Fourth,  study  a  good  book  on  econom- 
ics and  read  the  current  magazines  and  newspapers  to 
get  an  understanding  of  present  economic  questions. 

Such  supplemental  study  will  not  make  a  jour- 
nalist, but  it  will  give  an  education  that  will  help 
a  journalist  to  rise  from  a  position  of  drudgery  to 
one  of  distinction. 


182  NEWS  WRITING 

Write  news  stories  carefully  and  send  them  to 
local  newspapers.  Become  acquainted  in  newspaper 
offices.  If  you  are  careful  and  persevering  and 
have  "the  news  sense/'  you  may  succeed  as  a 
journalist.  If  you  are  a  girl,  remember  this:  You 
have  as  good  a  chance  to  succeed  as  a  journalist  as 
you  would  have  if  you  were  a  boy. 

Example:  — 

TO   WELCOME   BADEN-POWELL  » 

Famous  British  General  Will  Visit  Boston  and  Other  Cities  to  Inspect 
Boy  Scouts 

Boston  and  other  cities'  officers  and  members  of  the  Boy 
Scouts  of  America  are  getting  ready  for  the  visit  to  the 
United  States  of  General  Sir  Robert  Baden-Powell.  He  will 
make  a  tour  lasting  six  weeks  and  will  deliver  lectures  on 
the  scout  movement  and  talk  to  the  boys  in  leading  cities  from 
Boston  to  San  Francisco.  He  will  be  accompanied  by  James 
E.  West,  executive  secretary  of  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America. 

In  twenty  or  thirty  big  cities  and  in  many  towns  where 
Baden-Powell  and  West  will  go,  there  will  be  exhibitions  by 
the  Boy  Scouts  for  the  benefit  of  the  visitors.  Every  phase 
of  scouting  will  be  shown.  Baden-Powell  will  have  an 
opportunity  to  see  the  tremendous  spread  of  the  Boy  Scout 
movement  in  this  country  and  to  compare  the  skill,  the  alert- 
ness, and  the  general  physical  condition  of  the  American 
boys  with  those  of  the  English  boys.  Secretary  West  will 
make  his  first  formal  inspection  of  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America. 
He  will  meet  the  boys  personally  and  have  many  heart-to- 
heart  talks  with  them. 

Baden-Powell  will  arrive  in  New  York  in  February  and 

1From  Boston  Evening  Transcript,  Tuesday,  Nov.  14,  1911. 
Published  by  permission. 


CLASS  EXERCISES  183 

will  be  greeted  by  the  members  of  the  National  Council  of 
Boy  Scouts,  scout  masters,  and  boy  scouts.  A  dinner  will  be 
given  in  his  honor  by  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America  in  New 
York.  Baden-Powell  will  go  first  to  Boston  and  then  to 
Washington,  where  he  will  greet  President  Taft,  who  is 
honorary  president  of  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America.  He  will 
continue  his  trip  west  to  San  Francisco,  whence  he  will  sail 
for  Australia.  Secretary  West  will  meet  him  on  the  pier  in 
New  York  and  leave  him  at  the  pier  in  San  Francisco,  after 
a  journey  of  many  thousand  miles. 

The  tour  of  the  two  men  will  be  the  first  national  review, 
so  to  speak,  of  the  Boy  Scouts  of  America.  It  is  quite  likely 
that  in  cities  where  they  stop  there  will  be  gathered  troops 
of  Boy  Scouts  from  nearby  cities  and  towns,  so  that  as  many 
scouts  as  possible  will  have  an  opportunity  to  see  England's 
chief  scout  and  the  executive  secretary  of  the  Boy  Scouts  of 
America. 

CLASS  EXERCISES 

NOTE  TO  THE  TEACHER.  —  The  nature  of  the  class  exercises 
in  news  writing  must  be  determined  somewhat  by  the  nature 
of  the  students  and  the  town  or  city  in  which  the  school  is 
situated.  Usually  the  city  editors  of  local  newspapers  are 
interested  in  the  study  of  news  Writing  in  schools,  and  they 
may  be  called  upon  to  assist  in  the  work.  Usually  a  city 
editor  will  accept  an  invitation  to  talk  to  a  class  about  news 
writing,  and  he  will  give  many  inspiring  and  helpful  sugges- 
tions. News  stories  written  by  the  students  may  be  sub- 
mitted to  a  local  newspaper,  and  some  of  them  will  be  printed. 
Of  course,  such  stories  will  usually  be  changed  Jn  the  news- 
paper editorial  room  (sometimes  so  much  that  the  student 
will  hardly  recognize  his  work)  ;  but  the  student  can  profit 
much  by  comparing  his  story  with  the  one  published.  The 
teacher  will  do  well  to  procure  the  style  sheet  of  a  newspaper 
and  allow  the  students  to  have  access  to  it. 


184  NEWS  WRITING 

ASSIGNMENT 
Suggested  exercises :  — 

1.  Bring  good  daily  newspapers  to  class  and  analyze  some 
of  the  news  stories  to  learn  the  structure  and  the  subject 
matter. 

2.  Write  a  half  column  story  about  a  lecture,  or  speech. 
Tell  who,  when,  and  where,  and  quote  (directly  or  indirectly) 
some  of  the  statements  that  contain  an  element  of  human 
interest.     Try  to  get  the  principal  thought  that  the  speaker 
wishes  to  present,  and  state  it  clearly  in  your  own  words. 

3.  Write  a  quarter-column  story  for  the  society  page  about 
a  ball,  reception,  or  musicale.     The  names  of  those  in  the 
receiving  line  may  be  given,  but  do  not  give  an  incomplete 
list  of  the  names  of  the  guests :  give  all  or  none. 

4.  Write  a  quarter-column  story  about  a  ball  game,  a  track 
meet,  or  other  athletic  contest,  or  about  athletic  conditions  in 
your  school. 

5.  Write  a  story  about  some  new  or  proposed  building, 
bridge,  street  paving,  etc.     Give  names  of  prominent  men  in- 
terested, and  explain  the  nature  and  use  of  the  improvement. 

6.  Write  a  story  about  a  theatrical  play  or  similar  enter- 
tainment.    Criticise  the  play  as  a  whole,  and  the  work  of 
individuals.     Tell  why  the  work  was  good  or  bad. 

7.  Write  a  story  of   school  news  for  the  general  news 
columns.      Imagine  that  you  are  writing  for  a  local  paper. 
Select  a  subject  that  would  be  likely  to  meet  with  the  edi- 
tor's approval,  such  as  :     Journalistic  writing  in  the  high 
school;  The  results  of  the  recent   examinations  (entrance, 
periodic,  or  final) ;  The  plans  of  the  graduating  class   for 
Commencement  Week ;    The  Superintendent's  chapel  talk 
(select  details  of  general  interest). 

8.  Assume  that  the  class  is  publishing  a  newspaper.     Let 
two  or  more  students  write  general  news  stories.    Let  others 
write  social  news,  sporting  news,  theatrical  news,  etc. 


CHAPTER  X 
THE  ESSAY 

The  term  "essay"  has  been  applied  to  so  many  di- 
verse types  of  writing,  that  a  definition  which 
shall  be  at  once  comprehensive  and  exact,  is  most 
difficult  to  frame.  Character  sketches,  descriptive 
accounts  of  pictures  and  books,  short  critical  discus- 
sions of  pieces  of  literature,  and  editorial  articles  on 
subjects  of  general  interest  are  all  usually  called  es- 
says ;  thus  it  is  incorrect  to  classify  the  essay  form 
under  exposition,  even  when  it  is  expository  in 
chief  purpose,  since  it  is  not  confined  exclusively 
to  that  form  of  writing. 

An  essay  is  a  short  piece  of  discourse  not  in- 
tended to  be  a  complete  and  exhaustive  treatment 
of  a  subject,  but  an  expression  of  personal  opinion, 
and  its  chief  value  and  interest  often  lie  in  the 
original  and  interesting  point  of  view  of  the  author. 
Irving's  Sketch  Book  and  Holmes' s  Autocrat  of  the 
Breakfast  Table  are  in  the  essay  style.  They 
contain  description,  narration,  exposition,  and 
argumentation,  with  sometimes  all  four  forms 
on  a  single  page ;  but  whatever  the  form  or  the 
subject  matter,  the  authors  continually  tell  their  per- 
sonal opinions.  After  we  have  read  Westminster 

185 


1 86  THE  ESSAY 

Abbey,  we  feel  personally  acquainted  with  Irving. 
One  purpose  of  the  essay  is  to  entertain  the  reader. 
Essays  written  to-day  are  more  serious  in  tone  and 
more  practical  in  purpose  than  those  of  a  hundred 
years  ago ;  nevertheless,  the  purpose  of  the  author  is 
to  entertain  while  he  instructs,  and  essays  should 
always  be  classified  with  the  literature  of  entertain- 
ment. 

Now  we  may  venture  to  define  the  essay  by  say- 
ing, An  essay  is  a  short  piece  of  discourse  in  which 
the  author  sets  forth  his  personal  opinion  of  a  subject 
in  a  way  calculated  to  entertain. 


THE  EDITORIAL  ESSAY 


The  editorial  is  a  short  essay,  published  by  a 
newspaper  or  magazine,  which  sets  forth  the  opinion 
of  the  editor  regarding  some  subject  of  general 
interest.  When  an  important  political  or  religious 
question  arises  in  a  community,  the  owners  of  each 
newspaper  decide  what  its  attitude  toward  that 
question  shall  be  and  instruct  its  editor  to  write 
editorials  explaining  the  question  from  their  stand- 
point. Editorials  upon  questions  of  minor  import- 
ance are  merely  expressions  of  the  personal  opinion 
of  the  editor  or  of  one  of  his  assistants.  Editorials 
of  this  class  are  written  upon  any  topic  which  is 
likely  to  appeal  to  the  popular  taste  of  the  day. 
The  essential  thing  is  that  the  editorial  set  forth  a 
definitely  stated  opinion.  The  student  should  ex- 


THE  EDITORIAL   ESSAY  187 

amine  the  editorials  in  various  reputable  magazines 
and  newspapers  to  learn  what  a  prominent  place  the 
editorial  essay  holds  in  the  life  of  the  community. 

GIVE  THE  BOYS  AND   GIRLS  A  CHANCE1 

That  wise  woman,  Miss  Jane  Addams,  made  a  few  re- 
marks to  an  audience  at  the  Sunday  Evening  club  that  ought 
to  be  made  a  definite  and  permanent  plank  in  the  platform 
of  municipal  reform. 

Miss  Addams  pointed  out  that  the  police  reports  show  a 
shocking  number  of  arrests  of  young  persons  under  the  age 
of  twenty -five.  She  also  declared  that  in  almost  all  of  these 
instances  the  young  persons  arrested  had  got  into  trouble 
through  trying  to  have  a  good  time. 

There  isn't  anything  a  boy  or  girl  has  a  better  right  to 
than  a  good  time.  To  have  a  good  time  or  to  try  for  it  is 
as  natural  as  to  be  hungry  for  food  and  to  try  to  get  it. 

But  Miss  Addams  knows,  and  we  all  know  if  we  stop  to 
think  and  look  about  us,  that  it  is  not  easy  for  a  good  many 
boys  and  girls,  or  young  men  and  women  even,  to  get  a  good 
time  in  Chicago  or  any  other  great  city.  There  are  a  good 
many  places  that  seem  to  offer  a  chance  for  a  good  time  that 
are  not  the  sort  of  places  that  young  people  who  want  to 
keep  straight  and  clean  want  to  enter.  It  is  the  business  of 
the  city  to  shut  up  such  places. 

But  that  is  less  than  half  of  the  duty  of  the  city.  If  any 
one  is  hungry  and  is  about  to  eat  bad  food,  it  is  well  to  pre- 
vent it.  But  it  is  not  enough.  The  hunger  remains. 

What  Chicago  needs  is  more  places  of  clean  entertain- 
ment, more  places  where  our  boys  and  girls  can  go  to  have 
a  good  time.  And  this  ought  to  be  the  kind  of  good  time 
that  young  people  like,  not  the  kind  some  older  people  think 
they  ought  to  like.  There  should  be  plenty  of  places,  well 

1  From  the  Chicago  Tribune.     Copyright,  1911. 


1 88  THE  ESSAY 

run,  to  dance  in,  play  games  in,  get  together  in.  The  nickel 
theaters,  properly  regulated,  are  such  places,  and  it  is  worth 
noting  that  Miss  Addams  approves  of  them  under  such  reg- 
ulation. The  small  parks  and  park  houses  are  also  what 
are  needed,  but  more  are  needed. 

We  could  do  nothing  better  worth  while  than  to  supply 
the  children  and  the  young  folks  with  opportunities,  easily 
and  cheaply  to  be  had,  for  having  a  good  time  in  the  right  way. 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

Write  editorials  upon  the  following  topics:  — 
I.   An  editorial  for  the  newspaper  upon 

1.  Some  local  improvement  attempted  or  proposed  :  for 

example,  The  proposed  city  park;  The  attempt 
to  keep  stray  dogs  from  the  streets ;  The  need  for 
a  new  opera  house ;  The  agreement  to  qjose  the 
shops  at  six  o'clock. 

2.  Some  subject  of  timely  general  interest:  for  example, 

The  duty  of  a  voter  at  the  current  election ;  The 
case  of  the  workingman  versus  the  capitalist  in 
the  recent  strike;  The  County  Fair:  shall  it  be 
abolished  ? 

3.  A  recent  lecture,  sermon,  musical  or  theatrical  en- 

tertainment. 
II.    An  editorial  for  your  high  school  paper  upon 

1.  Some  organization  of  the  school :  for  example,  The 

baseball  team ;  The  senior  class ;  The  school 
chorus. 

2.  Some  incident  in  the  life  of  the  school :  for  example, 

A  lecture ;  The  annual  reception ;  The  resignation 
of  a  teacher  ;  A  change  in  the  curriculum. 

3.  Some  subject  of  timely  general  interest:  for  example, 

A  new  book ;  The  honor  system  in  the  high  school ; 
High  schools  as  preparatory  schools  for  colleges  ; 
School  courtesy 


THE  BIOGRAPHICAL  ESSAY  189 

THE  BIOGRAPHICAL  ESSAY 

A  biographical  essay  has  for  its  subject  matter 
the  life  of  an  individual.  Like  other  essays,  it 
should  be  entertaining,  and  not  a  mere  enumera- 
tion of  facts  regarding  the  life  of  the  person.  It 
may  emphasize  a  single  characteristic,  as  for  in- 
stance, the  sincerity  of  Lincoln ;  or  it  may  take  a 
broader  field  and  seek  to  present  the  man  as  a 
whole,  what  he  stood  for  and  what  he  tried  to  do, 

—  analyzing  the  underlying  causes  of  his  success 
or  failure  and  giving  the  social,  religious,  political, 
and  historical  background  which  developed  his  per- 
sonality. 

COUNT  TOLSTOY  AT  EIGHTY.1 
NOTE.  —  Count  Tolstoy  died  in  the  year  1910. 

When  a  man  has  reached  the  age  of  fourscore  years,  he 
is  not  to  be  judged  by  his  inconsistencies,  or  by  the  excep- 
tional and  perhaps  eccentric  things  that  he  has  done.  His  life 
should  be  regarded  as  a  whole.  What  great  things  has  he 
achieved  ?  What  has  been  the  whole  tenor  of  his  influence  ? 

Count  Lyof  Tolstoy  will,  if  he  lives  a  few  weeks  longer 

—  and  his  bodily  health  is  still  but  little  impaired  —  attain 
to  his  eightieth  birthday  on  the  28th  of  August.     He  has 
lived  much.     He  has  thought  much.     He  has  written  much. 
His  countrymen  hold  him  in  high  esteem,  and  are  rightly 
proud  of  him.    He,  almost  alone  in  Russia,  has  been  able  to 
utter  fearlessly  the  thing  he  thinks,  to  speak  out  his  whole 
mind,  to  affront  the  established  church,  and  to  criticise  the 
Czar,  and  yet  remain  unharmed  and  even  unmolested. 

What  is  the  significance  of  this  man's  work  ?     William 

1  By  Lyndon  Orr,  in  Munsey's  Magazine.     Copyright,  1008. 


I  go  THE  ESSAY 

Dean  Howells,  who  admires  Tolstoy  more  than  he  does  any 
other  human  being,  has  said  :  — 

"Tolstoy  awakens  in  his  reader  the  will  to  be  a  man. 
He  leads  you  back  to  the  only  true  ideal,  away  from  the 
false  standard  of  the  gentleman,  to  the  Man  who  sought  not 
to  be  distinguished  from  other  men,  but  to  be  identified 
with  them ;  to  that  Presence  in  which  the  finest  gentleman 
shows  his  alloy  of  vanity,  and  the  greatest  genius  shrinks 
to  the  measure  of  his  miserable  egotism." 

Tolstoy  has  gone  through  four  important  periods  of  ex- 
perience. In  his  youth  he  was  a  joyous,  pleasure-loving 
man  of  the  world,  a  favorite  at  court,  a  soldier,  a  great  land- 
owner. After  that  he  became  the  literary  artist,  and  wrote 
books  which  by  their  simplicity  and  power  brought  him  the 
world's  applause.  This  is  the  period  of  War  and  Peace, 
and  it  ended  with  his  master-work,  Anna  Kar6nina.  He 
himself  has  said  of  his  own  creations :  — 

"  I  began  to  write  out  of  vanity,  from  love  of  gain,  and 
from  pride.  They  paid  me  money  for  doing  this.  I  had 
excellent  food,  lodging,  and  society,  and  I  had  fame.  Ap- 
parently, what  I  taught  was  very  good." 

At  that  time,  he  was  eager  for  praise,  and  used  to  write 
to  his  friends  begging  them  to  tell  him  what  was  said  about 
him  by  those  who  read  his  books.  At  heart,  however,  he 
could  never  have  been  a  sincere  lover  of  literature  or  of  art. 
He  liked  the  renown  they  gave  him,  and  yet  he  showed  al- 
ways a  certain  aristocratic  contempt  for  men  who  wrote. 
Perhaps  there  was  in  him  that  touch  of  the  barbarian 
which  seems  to  underlie  the  Russian  nature.  At  any  rate, 
before  very  long  he  became  wholly  out  of  humor  with  all 
literature,  and  there  is  hardly  a  great  name  which  he  did  not 
daub  with  the  muck  of  his  hatred.  He  called  Goethe  "  a 
plagiarist";  he  described  the  poetry  of  Dante,  Milton,  and 
Shakespeare  as  "  coarse,  savage,  and  often  senseless."  The 
music  of  Beethoven  and  Wagner  were  to  him  "  calculated  and 


THE   BIOGRAPHICAL  ESSAY  igi 

unspontaneous."  Oddly  enough,  it  was  Uncle  Tom's  Cabin 
from  which  he  professed  to  derive  the  greatest  pleasure. 

Tolstoy,  in  fact,  was  afflicted  with  a  weariness  of  the 
world.  The  secret  of  the  true  Russian  spirit  is  simplicity ; 
and  in  the  end  Tolstoy  sought  to  return  to  a  simple  life. 
All  that  belonged  to  our  complex  civilization  he  came  to 
think  of  as  a  "madhouse  existence."  The  teachings  of 
Christ,  literally  accepted,  were  his  sole  religious  guide. 
The  tillage  of  the  soil  was  the  only  fit  occupation  for  a  man 
who  knew  the  truth.  Therefore,  this  genius  turned  his 
back  upon  the  splendor  of  the  capitals,  and  betook  himself, 
with  his  wife  and  daughter,  to  his  farm  at  Yasnaya  Polyana, 
in  southern  Russia;  and  there  he  lives  to-day,  so  far  as  he 
can,  the  life  of  one  who  sees  no  good  in  anything  that  is 
not  of  the  essence  of  simplicity. 

The  count  wished  to  give  away  his  entire  fortune;  but 
his  wife  took  legal  measures  to  prevent  this,  and  so  it  was 
turned  over  to  her  keeping.  He  will  not  copyright  his 
books,  which  are  free  to  every  publisher  throughout  the 
world,  while  their  author  will  not  take  a  cent  from  their 
enormous  sales.  He  dresses  in  sheepskins  or  in  rough 
woolen  clothes.  He  imagines  that  he  fares  like  the  hum- 
blest moujik  in  the  land. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  simplicity  of  Tolstoy's  is  hardly 
real.  His  wife,  who  watches  over  him  as  tenderly  as  if  he 
had  never  declared  marriage  to  be  vile,  sees  to  it  that  he  is 
not  deprived  of  creature  comforts.  Under  his  shaggy  outer 
clothing  he  wears  the  finest  linen.  Though  his  food  is 
simple,  it  is  of  the  best,  and  is  cooked  with  all  the  skill  of 
a  Parisian  chef.  Because  of  his  old  age,  he  does  not  detect 
the  kindly  imposition  that  is  practiced  on  him. 

Men  and  women  come  to  see  him  from  all  parts  of  the 
world.  To  those  who  listen  to  him  with  reverence,  he  has 
kind  words  to  say.  To  others  who  argue  that  his  view  of 
life  is  wrong,  he  shows  a  rough  impatience.  Not  long  ago 


192  THE   ESSAY 

the  president  of  a  leading  American  university  visited  him 
for  a  few  hours,  and  then  came  away.  He  was  a  man  of 
wide  learning  and  great  experience. 

"What  do  you  think  of  this  American  scholar?"  was 
asked  of  Tolstoy. 

"  He  is  only  a  barbarian,"  returned  the  "  master." 

It  is  easy  to  mock  at  the  incongruities  of  Tolstoy's  home 
to-day,  but  it  must  not  be  forgotten  that  he  is  terribly  sin- 
cere. Whatever  we  may  think  of  his  beliefs,  we  must  re- 
spect his  striving  after  simple  faith  and  purity  and  truth. 
The  world  as  he  would  have  it  will  doubtless  never  be; 
yet  his  greatness  and  the  power  of  his  teaching  have  put 
heart  into  those  who  despair  of  what  the  world  now  is,  and 
who  look  forward  to  the  ideals  of  a  humanity  made  perfect. 

Many  describe  him  as  a  socialist,  but  in  reality,  like  all 
his  countrymen,  he  is  in  the  last  analysis  a  fatalist.  He 
shows  this  by  continuing  at  times  to  write  for  publication, 
although  he  often  says  that  books  and  reading  are  only  one 
form  of  evil.  When  he  is  twitted  for  this  inconsistency,  he 
says,  in  the  spirit  of  a  fatalist :  — 

"  I  could  not  possibly  act  otherwise.  It  came  naturally 
to  me  to  do  this  thing," 

Yet  having  done  it,  he  is  dissatisfied,  and  he  still  goes  on 
striving  to  rise  above  himself  and  to  reach  the  goal  of  what 
is  absolutely  right. 

Assignment :  Write  a  biographical  essay,  a.  Em- 
phasize a  single  characteristic  of  the  person  whom 
you  take  as  your  subject ;  or 

6.    Interpret  the  bearing  of  his  life  as  a  whole. 

.  Suggested  subjects  :  — 

1.  Some  one  whom  you  know  well  and  admire ;  for  ex- 
ample, a  teacher,  a  grandfather,  a  prominent  business  man. 


LITERARY  CRITICISM  193 

2.  An  author  whom  you  have  studied  thoroughly ;  for 
example,  Tennyson,  Longfellow,  Poe,  Cooper. 

3.  A  man  of  national  reputation ;  for  example,  the  Gov- 
ernor of  your  state,  the  President  of  the  United  States. 

ESSAYS  IN  LITERARY  CRITICISM 

The  writer  of  an  essay  in  literary  criticism 
assumes  that  the  reader  is  more  or  less  familiar 
with  the  piece  of  literature  under  discus- 

1  Purpose 

sion,  and  aims  not  alone  to  present  his 
personal  point  of  view  in  an  entertaining  manner, 
bat  also  to  increase  the  intelligent  appreciation  of 
the  public  for  the  work  of  the  author. 

An  essay  of  this  type  may  deal  with  the  whole 
or  a  part  of  an  author's  work,  with  a  particular 
book  character,  with  some  individual  and 
striking  phase  of  an  author's  genius,  or          Matter 
with  the  work  of  a  group  of  authors. 

The  essayist  may  treat  his  subject  in  various 
ways.  He  may  interpret '  the  meaning ;  he  may 
show  the  author's  purpose;  he  may  Methods  of 
estimate  the  value  by  showing  in  what  Criticism 
respects  it  is  good  and  in  what  respects  it  is  not 
good ;  he  may  tell  how  it  appeals  to  him  person- 
ally ;  he  may  show  how  it  reveals  the  author's  life 
and  how  the  experience  of  the  author  helped 
to  make  it  what  it  is ;  he  may  show  the  influence 
it  has  upon  civilization ;  and  he  may  show  how 
it  reveals  the  life  of  the  nation  to  which  the  author 
belonged,  or  of  the  time  in  which  he  lived. 


IQ4  THE  ESSAY 

Literary  criticism  may  be  classified  as  interpre- 
tative, judicial,  impressionistic,  biographical,  and 
scientific  (philosophical  or  historical). 

Interpretative  criticism  seeks  to  explain  the 
meaning  and  the  purpose  of  a  piece  of  literature. 
discussion  of  the  characters  in  Aucas- 


interpreta- 

tive  Criti-     sin   and   Nicolette,  on   page    112,  is   an 

example.  There  the  critic  calls  atten- 
tion to  the  author's  use  of  the  supernatural,  his 
imagery,  the  moral  significance  of  the  tale,  the 
character  delineation,  etc. 

Judicial  criticism  seeks  to  analyze  a  work  from 
the  standpoint  of  its  worth  as  literature.  Im  par- 
judicial  tiality,  the  elimination  of  personal  bias, 
Criticism  an^  a  dispassionate  application  of  the 
recognized  principles  of  composition,  are  the  es- 
sential features  of  this  form  of  criticism.  To  say 
that  a  story  is  not  good  because  the  characters 
appear  wooden  and  there  are  digressions  from  the 
main  plot  is  to  criticize  judicially.  The  second 
paragraph  in  the  essay  on  Aucassin  and  Nicolette 
contains  judicial  criticism. 

Impressionistic  criticism  is  the  opposite  of  judi- 
cial criticism,  since  it  expresses  the  critic's  personal 
Im  res-  feeling  regarding  the  piece  of  literature 
sionistic  he  is  discussing.  Its  chief  value  and 
Criticism  cnarm  are  derived  from  the  personality 
of  the  critic.  Theoretically  this  might  seem  to  be 
of  doubtful  value  as  criticism,  but  in  reality  it  is 


LITERARY  CRITICISM  195 

most  valuable  if  the  critic  possesses  fine  and  dis- 
criminating literary  taste. 

Biographical  criticism  explains  the  relation  be- 
tween the  author  and  his  writings.  Critics  often 
explain  things  in  literature  by  referring  Bio  ra  ^ 
to  incidents  in  the  author's  life.  Often,  cai  Criti- 
too,  they  show  what  the  author's  life 
must  have  been  by  referring  to  passages  in  his 
writings :  it  is  by  such  criticism  that  we  have 
gained  most  of  our  knowledge  of  Shakespeare.  The 
last  paragraph  in  the  essay  Aucassin  and  Nicolette, 
for  instance,  contains  biographical  criticism. 

Scientific,  or  historical,  or  philosophical,  criticism 
shows  the  manner  in  which  a  piece  of  literature 
expresses  the  thought  and  feeling  of  the  scientific 
age  and  the  country  in  which  it  was  Criticism 
produced.  If  one  were  to  write  an  essay  about 
Uncle  Toms  Cabin,  for  example,  he  might  refer 
to  conditions  in  America  during  slavery  days  in 
order  to  show  why  the  book  was  written  and  what 
it  means. 

The  student  may  use  one  or  more  of  these  kinds 
of  criticism  in  an  essay  in  literary  criticism.  His 
essay  will  probably  be  expository  in  chief  purpose, 
but  it  may  contain  much  description,  narration, 
and  argumentation.  Before  he  writes  his  first 
essay  in  literary  criticism  he  should  read  again, 
as  a  good  example,  the  essay  Aucassin  and 
lette,  beginning  on  page  112. 


196  THE   ESSAY 

Example :  — 

SHYLOCK i 

If  Portia  is  the  beauty  of  the  play,  Shylock  is  its 
strength.  He  is  a  standing  marvel  of  power  and  scope 
in  the  dramatic  art ;  at  the  same  time  appearing  so  much 
a  man  of  Nature's  making,  that  we  can  hardly  think  of 
him  as  a  creation  of  art.  In  the  delineation  Shakespeare 
had  no  less  a  task  than  to  fill  with  individual  life  and 
peculiarity  the  broad,  strong  outlines  of  national  character 
in  its  most  revolting  form.  Accordingly,  Shylock  is  a  true 
representative  of  his  nation ;  wherein  we  have  a  pride 
which  for  ages  never  ceased  to  provoke  hostility,  but  which 
no  hostility  could  ever  subdue ;  a  thrift  which  still  invited 
rapacity,  but  which  no  rapacity  could  ever  exhaust ;  and 
a  weakness  which,  while  it  exposed  the  subjects  to  wrong, 
only  deepened  their  hate,  because  it  kept  them  without 
means  or  the  hope  of  redress.  Thus  Shylock  is  a  type 
of  national  sufferings,  national  sympathies,  national  an- 
tipathies. Himself  an  object  of  bitter  insult  and  scorn  to 
those  about  him;  surrounded  by  enemies  whom  he  is  at 
once  too  proud  to  conciliate  and  too  weak  to  oppose,  he 
can  have  no  life  among  them  but  money  ;  no  hold  on  them 
but  interest ;  no  feeling  towards  them  but  hate ;  no  in- 
demnity out  of  them  but  revenge.  Such  being  the  case, 
what  wonder  that  the  elements  of  national  greatness  be- 
came congealed  and  petrified  into  malignity  ?  As  avarice 
was  the  passion  in  which  he  mainly  lived,  the  Christian 
virtues  that  thwarted  this  naturally  seemed  to  him  the 
greatest  of  wrongs. 

With  these  strong  national  traits  are  interwoven  personal 
traits  equally  strong.  Thoroughly  and  intensely  Jewish,  he 
is  not  more  a  Jew  than  he  is  Shylock.  In  his  hard,  icy 

1  From  Shakespeare's  Life,  Art,  and  Characters,  by  II.  N.  Hud- 
son. Copyright.  Published  by  Messrs.  Ginn  and  Company. 


LITERARY   CRITICISM  197 

intellectuality,  and  his  dry,  mummy-like  tenacity  of  pur- 
pose, with  a  dash  now  and  then  of  biting  sarcastic  humor, 
we  see  the  remains  of  a  great  and  noble  nature,  out  of  which 
all  the  genial  sap  of  humanity  has  been  pressed  by  accumu- 
lated injuries.  With  as  much  elasticity  of  mind  as  stiffness 
of  neck,*  every  step  he  takes  but  the  last  is  as  firm  as  the 
earth  he  treads  upon.  Nothing  can  daunt,  nothing  discon- 
cert him;  remonstrance  cannot  move,  ridicule  cannot  touch, 
obloquy  cannot  exasperate  him :  when  he  has  not  provoked 
them,  he  has  been  forced  to  bear  them  ;  and  now  that  he 
does  provoke  them,  he  is  hardened  against  them.  In  a 
word,  he  may  be  broken ;  he  cannot  be  bent. 

Shylock  is  great  in  every  scene  where  he  appears,  yet 
each  later  scene  exhibits  him  in  a  new  element  or  aspect  of 
greatness.  For  as  soon  as  the  Poet  has  set  forth  one  side  or 
phase  of  his  character,  he  forthwith  dismisses  that,  and  pro- 
ceeds to  another.  For  example,  the  Jew's  cold  and  penetrat- 
ing sagacity,  as  also  his  malignant  and  remorseless  guile, 
are  finely  delivered  in  the  scene  with  Antonio  and  Bassanio, 
where  he  is  first  solicited  for  the  loan.  And  the  strength 
and  vehemence  of  passion,  which  underlies  these  qualities,  is 
still  better  displayed,  if  possible,  in  the  scene  with  Antonio's 
two  friends,  Solanio  and  Salarino,  where  he  first  avows  his 
purpose  of  exacting  the  forfeiture.  One  passage  of  this 
scene  has  always  seemed  to  me  a  peculiarly  idiomatic  strain 
of  eloquence,  steeped  in  a  mixture  of  gall  and  pathos ;  and 
I  the  rather  notice  it,  because  of  the  wholesome  lesson  which 
Christians  may  gather  from  it.  Of  course  the  Jew  is  refer- 
ring to  Antonio : 

"  Me  hath  disgraced  me  and  hindered  me  half  a  million ; 
laughed  at  my  losses,  mocked  at  my  gains,  scorned  my 
nation,  thwarted  my  bargains,  cooled  my  friends,  heated 
mine  enemies  ;  and  what's  his  reason  ?  I  am  a  Jew.  Hath 
not  a  Jew  eyes  ?  hath  not  a  Jew  hands,  organs,  dimensions, 
senses,  affections,  passions  ?  fed  with  the  same  food,  hurt 


198  THE   ESSAY 

with  the  same  weapons,  subject  to  the  same  diseases,  healed 
by  the  same  means,  warmed  and  cooled  by  the  same  Winter 
and  Summer,  as  a  Christian  is  ?  If  you  prick  us,  do  we  not 
bleed  ?  if  you  tickle  us,  do  we  not  laugh  ?  if  you  poison  us, 
do  we  not  die  ?  and  if  you  wrong  us,  shall  we  not  revenge  ? 
If  we  are  like  you  in  the  rest,  we  will  resemble  you^in  that. 
If  a  Jew  wrong  a  Christian,  what  is  his  humility  ?  revenge  : 
if  a  Christian  wrong  a  Jew,  what  should  his  sufferance  be  by 
Christian  example  ?  why,  revenge.  The  villainy  you  teach 
me,  I  will  execute ;  and  it  shall  go  hard  but  I  will  better  the 
instruction." 

I  have  spoken  of  the  mixture  of  national  and  individual 
traits  in  Shylock.  It  should  be  observed  further,  that  these 
several  elements  of  character  are  so  attempered  and  fused 
together,  that  we  cannot  distinguish  their  respective  influ- 
ence. Even  his  avarice  has  a  smack  of  patriotism.  Money  is 
the  only  defense  of  his  brethren  as  well  as  of  himself,  and  he 
craves  it  for  their  sake  as  well  as  his  own ;  feels  indeed  that 
wrongs  are  offered  to  them  in  him,  and  to  him  in  them. 
Antonio  has  scorned  his  religion,  balked  him  of  usurious 
gains,  insulted  his  person:  therefore  he  hates  him  as  a 
Christian,  himself  a  Jew ;  hates  him  as  a  lender  of  money 
gratis,  himself  a  griping  usurer ;  hates  him  as  Antonio, 
himself  Shylock.  Moreover,  who  but  a  Christian,  one  of 
Antonio's  faith  and  fellowship,  has  stolen  away  his  daughter's 
heart,  and  drawn  her  into  revolt,  loaded  with  his  ducats  and 
his  precious,  precious  jewels  ?  Thus  his  religion,  his  patri- 
otism, his  avarice,  his  affection,  all  concur  to  stimulate  his 
enmity;  and  his  personal  hate  thus  reinforced  overcomes 
for  once  his  greed,  and  he  grows  generous  in  the  prosecution 
of  his  aim.  The  only  reason  he  will  vouchsafe  for  taking 
the  pound  of  flesh  is  "  if  it  will  feed  nothing  else,  it  will 
feed  my  revenge"  ;  a  reason  all  the  more  satisfactory  to  him, 
forasmuch  as  those  to  whom  he  gives  it  can  neither  allow  it 
nor  refute  it :  and  until  they  can  rail  the  seal  from  off  the 


LITERARY   CRITICISM  199 

bond,  all  their  railings  are  but  a  foretaste  of  the  revenge  he 
seeks.  In  his  eagerness  to  taste  that  morsel  sweeter  to  him 
than  all  the  luxuries  of  Italy,  his  recent  afflictions,  the  loss 
of  his  daughter,  his  ducats,  and  even  the  precious  ring  given 
him  by  his  departed  wife,  all  fade  from  his  mind.  In  his 
inexorable  and  imperturbable  hardness  at  the  trial  there  is 
something  that  makes  the  blood  to  tingle.  It  is  the  sublimity 
of  malice.  We  feel  that  the  yearnings  of  revenge  have 
silenced  all  other  cares  and  all  other  thoughts.  In  his  rap- 
ture of  hate  the  man  has  grown  superhuman,  and  his  eyes 
seem  all  aglow  with  preternatural  malignity.  Fearful,  how- 
ever, as  his  passion  is,  he  comes  not  off  without  moving  our 
pity.  In  the  very  act  whereby  he  thinks  to  avenge  his  own 
and  his  brethren's  wrongs,  the  national  curse  overtakes  him. 
In  standing  up  for  the  letter  of  the  law  against  the  plead- 
ings of  mercy,  he  has  strengthened  his  enemies7  hands,  and 
sharpened  their  weapons,  against  himself ;  and  the  terrible 
Jew  sinks  at  last  into  the  poor,  pitiable,  heart-broken  Shy- 
lock. 

The  student  should  write  short  essays  in  literary 
criticism  and  at  least  one  long  critical  essay,  the  sub- 
ject of  which  may  be  a  book  or  poem  that  has  been 
studied  in  the  class,  or,  if  he  wishes,  a  piece  of  liter- 
ature not  included  in  the  course.  An  ability  to 
appreciate  the  best  in  the  world's  literature  is  one 
of  the  greatest  gifts  an  education  can  bestow. 
He  who  has  this  ability  will  have  a  hearty  con- 
tempt for  the  cheap  attractions  of  sensational  liter- 
ature, social  gossip,  and  political  trickery. 

NOTE  . —  The  student  will  find  the  essays  of  Matthew 
Arnold,  Walter  Pater,  and  Edward  Dowden  stimulating  at 
this  stage  of  his  course. 


200  THE  ESSAY 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

I.  A  literary  character ;  for  example,  Fagin,  Micawber, 
Rowena,  Eebecca,  Colonel  Newcome,  Becky  Sharp,  Jean 
Valjean,  Silas  Marner,  Maggie  Tulliver,  Lady  Macbeth,  Fal- 
staff,  Mowgli,  Kim. 

II.  Some  characteristic  of  an  author's  work ;  for  example, 
Stevenson's  knowledge  of  child  life  (illustrated  from  A 
Child's  Garden  of  Verses) ;  Kipling's  knowledge  of  animal 
life  (illustrated  from  The  Jangle  Book)  ;  The  fantastic 
element  in  Coleridge's  The  Ancient  Mariner;  The  humor 
of  Dickens;  The  pathos  in  the  writings  of  Eugene  Field; 
The  use  of  nature  in  Tennyson's  writings  ;  Tolstoy's  message 
(illustrated  from  What  Men  Live  By). 

III.  A  novel,  a  short  story,  or  a  poem  (its  nature,  pur- 
pose, structure,  imagery,  characters,  literary  worth,  etc.  ; 
for  example,  The  Jungle  Book,  The  Ancient  Mariner,  Silas 
Marner,  A  Child's  Garden  of  Verses,  The  Vision  of  Sir 
Lauhfal,  Treasure  Island,  The  Lady  of  the  Lake. 

ESSAYS  IN  ART  CRITICISM 

While  the  majority  of  the  critical  essays  are 
upon  literary  subjects,  a  great  many  are  written 
upon  the  other  forms  of  art,  — painting,  architecture, 
music,  the  drama,  etc.  Essays  in  art  criticism 
contain  all  the  various  forms  of  criticism  that 
were  discussed  in  the  lesson  on  literary  criticism. 
Thus,  a  critical  essay  upon  an  illustration  drawn 
by  Thackeray  for  his  well-known  novel,  Ttie 
Newcomes,  might  interpret  its  meaning  in  relation 
to  the  story  or  might  judge  the  illustration  as  a 
work  of  art ;  again  it  might  show  how  the  illustra- 
tion impressed  the  critic  personally  or  how  the 


ART   CRITICISM  2OI 

illustration  was  related  to  Thackeray's  life-experi- 
ence, or  to  the  life  of  the  English  nation  in  the 
nineteenth  century. 

Example :  — 

THE  PORTRAIT  OF  DANTE 

To  me  it  [the  portrait  of  Dante]  is  a  most  touching  face ; 
perhaps  of  all  faces  that  I  know,  the  most  so.  Lonely  there, 
painted  as  on  vacancy,  with  the  simple  laurel  wound  round 
it;,  the  deathless  sorrow  and  pain,  the  known  victory  which 
is  also  deathless ;  —  significant  of  the  whole  history  of 
Dante  !  I  think  it  is  the  mournfulest  face  that  ever  was 
painted  from  reality ;  an  altogether  tragic,  heart-affecting  face. 
There  is  in  it,  as  foundation  of  it,  the  softness,  tenderness, 
gentle  affection  as  of  a  child;  but  all  this  is  as  if  congealed 
into  sharp  contradiction,  into  abnegation,  isolation,  proud, 
hopeless  pain.  A  soft  ethereal  soul  looking  out  so  stern,  im- 
placable, grim-trenchant,  as  from  imprisonment  of  thick- 
ribbed  ice !  Withal  it  is  a  silent  pain  too,  a  silent,  scornful 
one :  the  lip  is  curled  in  a  kind  of  godlike  disdain  of  the 
thing  that  is  eating  out  his  heart,  —  as  if  it  were  withal  a 
mean,  insignificant  thing,  as  if  he  whom  it  had  power  to 
torture  and  strangle  were  greater  than  it.  The  face  of 
one  wholly  in  protest,  and  life-long  unsurrendering  battle, 
against  the  world.  Affection  all  converted  into  indignation : 
an  implacable  indignation ;  slow,  equable,  silent,  like  that 
of  a  God  !  The  eye,  too,  it  looks  out  —  in  a  kind  of  surprise, 
a  kind  of  inquiry,  Why  the  world  was  of  such  a  sort? 
This  is  Dante :  so  he  looks,  this  "  voice  of  ten  silent  cen- 
turies," and  sings  us  "his  mystic  unfathomable  song." 
—  THOMAS  CARLYLE,  Heroes  and  Hero  Worship. 

When  the  student  writes  an  essay  in  art  criti- 
cism he  should  remember  that  he  is  to  entertain  as 


202  THE  ESSAY 

well  as  to  instruct.  Although  his  chief  purpose 
should  be  to  increase  the  intelligent  appreciation 
of  his  reader  for  the  picture,  building,  or  other 
work  of  art  that  he  criticizes,  he  should  also  en- 
deavor to  make  his  essay  attractive  in  style. 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

1.   A  portrait,  a  painting,  or  the  illustrations  of  a  book. 

If  you  choose  to  criticize  the  portrait  on  the  opposite 
page,  you  might  treat  it  in  any  of  the  following  ways : 
(1)  You  might  simply  try  to  interpret  the  impression  of 
Carlyle's  personality  which  Whistler  has  given  you;  (2) 
You  might  compare  this  idea  of  Carlyle  with  that  which 
you  have  gained  from  history  or  from  his  writings ;  (3)  You 
might  consider  the  picture  from  a  purely  technical  stand- 
point, judging  the  composition,  the  contrast  of  light  and 
shade,  etc.,  according  to  artistic  standards ;  (4)  You  might 
try  to  show  the  place  of  this  picture  in  the  development  of 
Whistler's  art ;  or  (5)  its  deviation  from  the  artistic  conven- 
tions of  his  time. 

Any  of  the  above  forms  of  criticism  might  be  applied  to 
the  pictures  facing  pages  16,  22,  51,  and  57. 

2.  A  piece  of  architecture,  such  as  a  church,  a  schoolhouse, 
a  court  house,  or  a  large  bridge. 

If  you  choose  to  criticize  the  Greek  temple  in  the  pic- 
ture facing  page  201  or  the  interior  of  the  Gothic  cathedral 
shown  in  the  frontispiece,  you  will  find  it  helpful,  however 
you  treat  them,  to  familiarize  yourself  with  the  cardinal 
principles  of  Greek  or  Gothic  architecture.  How  would  a 
criticism  of  either  of  these  buildings  differ  from  a  de- 
scription ? 

3.  A  theatrical  entertainment,  criticizing  the  success  of  the 
play  as  a  whole  and  the  work  of  individual  actors. 


James  McNeill  Whistler 


THOMAS  CARLYLE 


REVIEWS  203 

REVIEWS 

Reviews  are  sometimes  classed  with  critical  es- 
says, although  they  differ  in  purpose.  The  critical 
essay  is  mainly  interpretative  in  character 
and  written  with  the  assumption  that  the 
reader  is  familiar  with  the  book  under  discussion, 
while  the  review  is  like  the  guidepost  pointing  out 
the  paths  in  the  unfamiliar  country  of  the  new 
books.  It  aims  to  direct  readers  by  showing  the 
nature  and  the  worth  of  the  book  reviewed.  The 
intelligent  reader  feels  that  time  spent  in  reading 
bad  literature  is  worse  than  wasted,  and,  seeking 
for  that  which  is  really  worth  reading,  turns  to  the 
book  reviews  in  the  magazines  and  newspapers. 

Two  things  the  reader  demands  that  the  review 
shall  give  him :  first,  a  general  idea  of  the  subject 
matter  and  the  style,  and  second,  an  estimate  of 
the  literary  or  scientific  value  of  the  book  reviewed. 
He  also  wishes  to  find  a  thorough  knowledge  of 
the  subject,  the  power  of  clear,  logical  analysis, 
and  absolute  sincerity  on  the  part  of  the  reviewer. 

A  review  of  a  textbook  on  composition  might  tell 
the  grade  of  the  pupils  for  whom  the  book  was 
written ;  the  particular  kind  of  training  presenta 
that  the  author  expected  the  pupils  to  tion  of  Sub- 
get  from  a  study  of  the  book;  the  prin-  JectMatter 
cipal  divisions  of  the  book  and  the  subject  matter 
of  each  division ;  the  author's  way  of  presenting 
the  subject  matter  of  each  part,  etc.  A  review  of 


204  THE  ESSAY 

a  novel  should  tell  enough  about  the  plot  and  the 
characters  to  give  the  reader  an  idea  whether  the 
novel  is  one  that  would  appeal  to  him,  but  it  should 
not  tell  enough  of  the  plot  to  lessen  his  interest 
when  he  reads  the  story.  The  review  should  give 
such  details  as  the  place  of  the  action  (e.g.  Virginia), 
the  time  (e.g.  just  before  the  Revolution),  and  the 
kind  of  characters  (e.g.  the  most  aristocratic  of  the 
colonists,  and  officers  of  the  British  army).  The 
review  of  a  novel  should  also  classify  it.  Is  the 
novel  a  romantic  love  story  ?  Is  it  an  historical 
novel,  the  chief  interest  of  which  lies  in  the  presen- 
tation of  the  social  and  political  condition  of  a 
people  ?  Is  it  a  political  novel,  intended  to  cor- 
rect evils  that  exist  in  the  management  of  the  gov- 
ernment or  in  one  of  its  institutions  ?  Is  it  a  novel 
dealing  with  a  social  problem,  such  as  the  duty  of 
a  wife  to  her  husband,  or  the  duty  of  a  sister  to  her 
brother  ?  Is  it  a  novel  idealizing  a  noble  charac- 
ter, like  Colonel  Newcome  ? 

Finally,  the  literary  or  scientific  value  of  the 
book  should  be  discussed.  If  the  literature  is  scien- 
Estimate  of  tific,  what  is  the  information  that  the 
Value  author  has  to  give  ?  If  the  literature 

is  fiction,  what  message  does  it  have  ?  Is  the 
story  interesting  or  dull,  pleasing  or  depressing  ? 
A  review  of  a  piece  of  fiction  might  discuss  the 
moral  or  the  artistic  purpose,  the  strength  of  the 
characters,  and  the  beauty  of  the  descriptions. 


REVIEWS  205 

The  form,  too,  may  be  mentioned.  Is  the  English 
pure  ?  Are  the  words  well  chosen  ?  Is  the  plot 
structure  defective  ?  Is  the  style  pleasing  ?  In 
short,  would  the  structure  both  please  and  educate 
the  reader  ? 

Example :  — 

A  NOTE  ON   JOHN  BURROUGHS1 

This  [Winter  Sunshine]  is  a  very  charming  little  book. 
We  had  noticed,  on  their  appearance  in  various  periodicals, 
some  of  the  articles  of  which  it  is  composed,  and  we  find 
that,  read  continuously,  they  have  given  us  even  more  pleas- 
ure. We  have,  indeed,  enjoyed  them  more  perhaps  than  we 
can  show  sufficient  cause  for.  They  are  slender  and  light, 
but  they  have  a  real  savor  of  their  own. 

Mr.  Burroughs  is  known  as  an  out-of-door  observer,  —  a 
devotee  of  birds  and  trees  and  fields  and  aspects  of  weather 
and  humble  wayside  incidents.  The  minuteness  of  his  ob- 
servation, the  keenness  of  his  perception  of  all  these  things, 
give  him  a  real  originality  which  is  confirmed  by  a  style 
sometimes  indeed  idiomatic  and  unfinished  to  a  fault,  but 
capable  of  remarkable  felicity  and  vividness.  Mr.  Burroughs 
is  also,  fortunately  for  his  literary  prosperity  in  these  days, 
a  decided  "humorist";  he  is  essentially  arid  genially  an 
American,  without  at  all  posing  as  one,  and  his  sketches 
have  a  delightful  oddity,  vivacity,  and  freshness. 

The  first  half  of  his  volume,  and  the  least  substantial, 
treats  of  certain  rambles  taken  in  the  winter  and  spring  in 
the  country  around  Washington ;  the  author  is  an  apostle 
of  pedestrianism,  and  these  pages  form  a  prolonged  rhapsody 
upon  the  pleasures  within  the  reach  of  any  one  who  will 

1  From  Views  and  Reviews,  by  Henry  James.  Copyright,  1908. 
Published  by  The  Ball  Publishing  Company. 


206  THE  ESSAY 

take  the  trouble  to  stretch  his  legs.  They  are  full  of  charm- 
ing touches,  and  indicate  a  real  genius  for  the  observation  of 
natural  things.  Mr.  Burroughs  is  a  sort  of  reduced,  but 
also  more  humorous,  more  available,  and  more  sociable 
Thoreau.  He  is  especially  intimate  with  birds,  and  he  gives 
his  reader  an  acute  sense  of  how  sociable  an  affair,  during 
six  months  of  the  year,  this  feathery  lore  may  make  a  lonely 
walk.  He  is  also  intimate  with  the  question  of  apples,  and 
he  treats  of  it  in  a  succulent  disquisition  which  imparts  to 
the  somewhat  trivial  theme  a  kind  of  lyrical  dignity.  He 
remarks,  justly,  that  women  are  poor  apple-eaters. 

But  the  best  pages  are  those  which  commemorate  a  short 
visit  to  England  and  the  rapture  of  his  first  impressions. 
This  little  sketch,  in  spite  of  its  extreme  slightness,  really 
deserves  to  become  classical.  We  have  read  far  solider 
treatises  which  contained  less  of  the  essence  of  the  matter  ; 
or  at  least,  if  it  is  not  upon  the  subject  itself  that  Mr.  Bur- 
roughs throws  particularly  powerful  light,  it  is  the  essence 
of  the  traveler's  spirit  that  he  gives  us,  the  intensity  of 
impression,  the  genial  bewilderment,  the  universal  appreci- 
ativeness.  All  this  is  delightfully  naif,  frank,  and  natural. 

"  All  this  has  been  told,  and  it  pleased  me  so  in  the  see- 
ing that  I  must  tell  it  again,"  the  author  says ;  and  this  is 
the  constant  spirit  of  his  talk.  He  appears  to  have  been 
"  pleased  "  as  no  man  was  ever  pleased  before  ;  so  much  so 
that  his  reflections  upon  his  own  country  sometimes  become 
unduly  invidious.  But  if  to  be  appreciative  is  the  traveler's 
prime  duty,  Mr.  Burroughs  is  a  prince  of  travelers. 

"  Then  to  remember  that  it  was  a  new  sky  and  a  new 
earth  I  was  beholding,  that  it  was  England,  the  old  mother 
at  last,  no  longer  a  faith  or  a  fable  but  an  actual  fact,  there 
before  my  eyes  and  under  my  feet  —  why  should  I  not 
exult?  Go  to!  I  will  be  indulged.  These  trees,  those 
fields,  that  bird  darting  along  the  hedge-rows,  those  men 
and  boys  picking  blackberries  in  October,  those  English 


REVIEWS  207 

flowers  by  the  roadside  (stop  the  carriage  while  I  leap  out 
and  pluck  them),  the  homely  domestic  look  of  things,  those 
houses,  those  queer  vehicles,  those  thick-coated  horses,  those 
big-footed,  coarsely-clad,  clear-skinned  men  and  women  ;  this 
massive,  homely,  compact  architecture  —  let  me  have  a 
good  look,  for  this  is  my  first  hour  in  England,  and  I  am 
drunk  with  the  joy  of  seeing !  This  house  fly,  let  me  inspect 
it,  and  that  swallow  skimming  along  so  familiarly." 

One  envies  Mr.  Burroughs  his  acute  relish  of  the  foreign 
spectacle  even  more  than  one  enjoys  his  expression  of  it. 
He  is  not  afraid  to  start  and  stare ;  his  state  of  mind  is  ex- 
actly opposed  to  the  high  dignity  of  the  nil  admirari.  When 
he  goes  into  St.  Paul's,  "  my  companions  rushed  about/'  he 
says,  "  as  if  each  one  had  a  search  warrant  in  his  pocket ; 
but  I  was  content  to  uncover  my  head  and  drop  into  a  seat, 
and  busy  my  mind  with  some  simple  object  near  at  hand, 
while  the  sublimity  that  soared  about  me  stole  into  my 
soul."  He  meets  a  little  girl  carrying  a  pail  in  a  meadow 
near  Stratford,  stops  her  and  talks  with  her,  and  finds  an  in- 
effable delight  in  "  the  sweet  and  novel  twang  of  her  words. 
Her  family  had  emigrated  to  America,  failed  to  prosper,  and 
come  back ;  and  I  hardly  recognize  even  the  name  of  my 
own  country  in  her  innocent  prattle  ;  it  seemed  like  a  land 
of  fable  —  all  had  a  remote,  mythological  air,  and  I  pressed 
my  inquiries  as  if  I  was  hearing  of  this  strange  land  for  the 
first  time." 

Mr.  Burroughs  is  unfailingly  complimentary;  he  sees 
sermons  in  stones  and  good  in  everything;  the  somewhat 
dusky  British  world  was  never  steeped  in  so  intense  a  glow 
of  rose  color.  Sometimes  his  optimism  rather  interferes  with- 
his  accuracy  —  as  when  he  detects  "  forests  and  lakes  "  in 
Hyde  Park,  and  affirms  that  the  English  rural  landscape 
does  not,  in  comparison  with  the  American,  appear  highly 
populated.  This  latter  statement  is  apparently  made  apro- 
pos of  that  long  stretch  of  suburban  scenery,  pure  and  simple, 


208  THE  ESSAY 

which  extends  from  Liverpool  to  London.  It  does  not  strike 
us  as  felicitous,  either,  to  say  that  women  are  more  kindly 
treated  in  England  than  in  the  United  States,  and  especially 
that  they  are  less  "  leered  at."  "  Leering  "  at  women  is  hap- 
pily less  common  all  the  world  over  than  it  is  sometimes 
made  to  appear  for  picturesque  purposes  in  the  magazines ; 
but  we  should  say  that  if  there  is  a  country  where  the  art 
has  not  reached  a  high  stage  of  development,  it  is  our  own. 
It  must  be  added  that  if  Mr.  Burroughs  is  shrewd  as  well 
as  na'iff  the  latter  quality  sometimes  distances  the  former. 
He  runs  over  for  a  week  to  France.  "  At  Dieppe  I  first  saw 
the  wooden  shoe,  and  heard  its  dry,  senseless  clatter  upon 
the  pavement.  How  suggestive  of  the  cramped  and  inflexible 
conditions  with  which  human  nature  has  borne  so  long  in 
these  lands  !  "  But  in  Paris  also  he  is  appreciative  —  singu- 
larly so  for  so  complete  an  outsider  as  he  confesses  himself 
to  be  —  and  throughout  he  is  very  well  worth  reading.  We 
heartily  commend  his  little  volume  for  its  honesty,  its  indi- 
viduality, and,  in  places,  its  really  blooming  freshness. 

Assignment :  Write  a  review  of  some  article, 
book,  poem,  or  story  which  has  elements  of  appeal 
for  you.  State  frankly  the  points  in  it  which  seem 
to  you  weak  or  effective. 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

1.    A  magazine  article  of  especial  worth.      The   subject 
matter  may  be  of  almost  any  kind, —  educational,  political, 
social,  historical,  geographical,  or  religious. 
,     2.   A  piece  of  fiction.     This  may  be  a  short  story  of  un- 
usual power  selected  from  a  magazine,  or  a  novel. 

3.  A  textbook  in  English,  or   some  other   non-fictional 
book. 

4.  A  piece  of  standard  literature  that  is  unique  in  thought 
or  in  structure.      For  instance  :  Kipling's    The   Children  of 


REVIEWS  209 

the  Zodiac;  Markham's  TJie  Man  with  the  Hoe;  Tol- 
stoy's What  Men  Live  By;  Aldrich's  Marjory  Daw; 
Male's  My  Double  and  How  He  Undid  Me;  Whitman's 
When  Lilacs  last  iti  the  Dooryard  Bloomed  ;  Stevenson's 
fable,  The  House  of  Eld;  Rossetti's  The  Blessed  Dam- 
ozel;  Blake's  Songs  of  Innocence. 


CHAPTER    XI 
FORMS   OF  PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

In  preparing  a  public  address  it  should  be 
remembered  that  the  audience  will  not  grasp  the 
argument  as  thoroughly  in  spoken  discourse  as  in 
written,  for  the  latter  can  be  re-read,  digested,  and 
assimilated  at  leisure.  But  those  who  listen  to  an 
address  must  get  the  thought  at  the  moment  it  is 
uttered.  The  prospective  public  speaker  should 
understand  that  many  in  the  audience  will  be  inat- 
tentive, at  least  a  part  of  the  time  ;  that  many  will 
have  their  attention  diverted  from  the  discourse ; 
and  many  others  will  fail  entirely  to  hear  or  to 
understand  parts  of  what  is  said. 

The  observance  of  three  general  principles  will 
help  to  make  public  discourse  effective  even  under 
Three  adverse  conditions.  First,  the  thought 
Principles  should  be  divided  into  distinct  parts. 
Second,  the  transition  from  one  division  of  the 
thought  to  another  should  be  clearly  emphasized. 
Third,  many  concrete  instances  should  be  used. 

The  first  principle  is  perhaps  the  most  important. 
The  speaker  should  make  the  divisions  of  his 
thought  so  distinct  that  each  one  in  the  audience 
could  give  the  subject  of  his  speech  and  the  subject 

2IO 


FORMS  OF   PUBLIC  ADDRESS  21 1 

of  each  of  his  divisions.  Thus,  one  of  his  hearers 
might  say,  "  The  subject  was,  The  effects  of  habits, 
good  and  bad,  upon  the  lives  of  men.  Definite 
The  divisions  were,  The  effects  of  physi-  Division 
cal  habits ;  The  effects  of  mental  habits ;  and  The 
effects  of  moral  habits."  The  audience  will  not 
remember  what  is  said  if  they  do  not  recognize 
the  framework  of  the  thought ;  and  they  will  not 
do  this  unless  the  divisions  are  marked  more  clearly 
than  in  the  ordinary  essay.  At  the  beginning  of 
his  address  the  speaker  should  show  definitely  what 
he  is  going  to  talk  about  and  outline  his  main 
divisions. 

The  second  principle  is  also  important.  If  the 
speaker  can  hold  the  attention  of  the  entire  audi- 
ence when  he  goes  from  one  division  of  Emphatic 
his  subject  to  another,  and  can  make  every  Transition 
one  understand  that  he  has  completed  one  division 
of  the  subject,  and  anticipate  the  subject  of  the 
next,  his  audience  will  remember  the  substance  of 
the  address.  If,  for  example,  every  one  knows  that 
the  speaker  has  completed  the  discussion  of  the 
effects  of  physical  habits  and  that  he  is  discussing 
the  effects  of  mental  habits,  even  confusion  and 
inattention  will  not  prevent  the  audience  from  get- 
ting the  substance  of  the  address.  The  speaker 
might  say,  "  Such  are  the  effects  of  physical  habits 
upon  the  lives  of  men.  Now  let  us  consider  the 
effects  of  mental  habits."  He  may  call  attention 


212  FORMS   OF   PUBLIC   ADDRESS 

to  the  transition,  also,  by  pausing  for  a  moment 
between  the  two  divisions,  and  by  changing  the 
tone  and  force  of  his  voice. 

Finally,  the  effectiveness  of  a  public  address 
depends  much  upon  the  amount  and  the  kind  of 
Concrete  concrete  material  that  it  contains,  and 
illustration  the  most  effective  illustrations  are  those 
which  are  directly  related  to  the  experience  of  the 
audience ;  for  instance,  in  an  address  to  a  body  of 
students,  local  incidents  arouse  more  interest  than 
happenings  in  a  distant  and  unknown  school.  If  a 
comparison  is  to  be  used,  the  speaker  will  accomplish 
his  purpose  best  if  he  compares  the  thing  with  some- 
thing with  which  the  hearers  are  well  acquainted. 
A  quotation  from  a  person  with  whom  the  audience 
is  familiar  will  be  more  effective  than  one  from  a 
person  who  is  entirely  unknown.  A  general  truth 
is  often  presented  effectively  by  means  of  a  simple 
fable.  Descriptions,  if  they  are  not  too  long,  appeal 
to  the  emotions  and  awaken  interest;  quotations 
from  standard  literature  and  the  sayings  of  famous 
men  make  a  similar  appeal  to  an  audience.  Anec- 
dotes may  be  used  if  they  really  help  to  present  the 
thought  and  are  in  harmony  with  the  tone  of 
the  discourse.  The  prospective  public  speaker 
should  remember  that  the  concrete  is  grasped  more 
easily  than  the  abstract. 


ADDRESSES   FOR   SPECIAL   OCCASIONS  213 

ADDRESSES    FOR    SPECIAL    OCCASIONS 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  discussion  to  give 
specific  directions  for  the  construction  of  speeches 
suitable  for  various  occasions,  but  to  invite  the 
student  to  discover  for  himself  the  appropriate 
material  that  he  may  be  equal  to  the  occasion  when 
he  is  called  upon  to  address  an  audience.  Three 
things  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  decid- 
ing upon  the  subject  matter  of  his  speech :  the 
nature  of  the  occasion ;  the  nature  of  the  audience ; 
and  the  length  of  time  that  he  is  expected  to 
speak. 

Culture,  it  is  said,  helps  a  man  to  adapt  himself 
to  the  situation  in  which  he  is  placed.  At  no  time, 
perhaps,  is  a  person  more  in  need  of  culture  to 
help  him  to  such  an  adaptation,  than  when  he  is 
called  upon  to  address  an  audience.  If  he  can  de- 
cide what  the  occasion  demands  before  it  is  too 
late,  he  may  appreciate  the  truth  of  the  proverb, 
"  A  word  fitly  spoken  is  like  apples  of  gold  in  pic- 
tures of  silver."  Each  special  occasion  brings 
people  together  with  a  common  purpose  and  a 
common  emotion.  If  the  speaker  is  able  to  seize 
swiftly  upon  the  common  purpose  and  appeal  to 
that  common  emotion,  he  takes  the  tide  in  the 
affairs  of  men  that  leads  on  to  fortune.  If  the 
occasion  is  the  commencement  exercises  of  a  grad- 
uating class,  the  thought  of  the  audience  is  cen- 
tered upon  the  possibilities  in  the  lives  of  the 


214  FORMS  OF  PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

graduating  students.  That  is  the  time  to  speak  of 
the  interests  and  sympathies  that  have  bound 
the  class  together  and  the  broadened  field  of  in- 
terests and  sympathies  that  lies  before  them.  If 
the  occasion  is  the  dedication  of  an  athletic  field, 
that  is  the  time  to  speak  of  the  nature  and  the  re- 
sults of  athletic  exercises.  Of  course,  the  speaker 
will  remember  that  the  more  directly  his  subject 
matter  touches  the  interest  and  the  experience  of 
his  audience  the  more  likely  it  is  to  be  effective. 

In  all  public  address  the  nature  of  the  audience 
should  define  the  nature  of  the  subject  matter.  It 
is  clear  that  a  speech  to  be  delivered  before  a 
convention  of  Boy  Scouts  should  differ  in  tone  and 
subject  matter  from  one  to  be  delivered  before 
young  men  at  an  athletic  association  meeting. 

Not  the  least  important  thing  to  be  considered 
in  choosing  a  subject  is  the  length  of  the  speech. 
If  the  speech  is  to  be  limited  to  five  minutes  in 
length,  the  speaker  will  do  well  to  follow  the  ex- 
ample of  Lincoln  in  his  "  Gettysburg  Address,"  and 
present  only  one  simple  thought ;  but  he  should  ex- 
press that  thought  in  such  clear  and  impressive 
language  that  it  will  be  remembered.  In  a  longer 
speech  the  subject  should  be  broader,  but  the 
thought  of  each  division  should  be  presented 
clearly  and  the  whole  speech  should  present  a 
unified,  definite  message. 


ADDRESSES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  215 

Example :  — 

THE  IMMORTALITY  OF  GOOD  DEEDS1 

(Delivered  on  the  semi-centennial  of  Girard  College,  189S,  by  the 
Honorable  Thomas  Brackett  Reed,  who  was  at  one  time  Speaker 
of  the  House  of  Representatives.) 

Six  hundred  and  fifty  or  seventy  years  ago,  England, 
which,  during  the  following  period  of  nearly  seven  centu- 
ries, has  been  the  richest  nation  on  the  face  of  the  globe, 
began  to  establish  the  two  great  universities  which,  from 
the  banks  of  the  Cam  and  the  Isis,  have  sent  forth  great 
scholars  and  priests  and  statesmen  whose  deeds  have  been 
part  of  the  history  of  every  land  and  sea.  During  all  that 
long  period  reaching  back  two  hundred  and  fifty  years  be- 
fore it  was  even  dreamed  that  this  great  hemisphere  existed, 
before  the  world  knew  that  it  was  swinging  in  the  air  and 
rolling  about  the  sun,  kings  and  cardinals,  nobles  and  great 
churchmen,  the  learned  and  the  pious,  began  bestowing 
upon  these  abodes  of  scholars  their  gifts  of  land  and  money ; 
and  they  have  continued  their  benefactions  down  to  our 
time.  What  those  universities,  with  all  their  colleges  and 
halls  teeming  with  scholars  for  six  hundred  years,  have 
done  for  the  progress  of  civilization  and  the  good  of  man  I 
could  not  begin  to  tell. 

Although  more  than  six  centuries  of  regal,  princely, 
and  pious  donations  have  been  poured  into  the  purses 
of  these  venerable  aids  to  learning,  the  munificence  of 
one  American  citizen  to-day  affords  an  endowment  in- 
come equal  to  that  of  each  university,  and  when  Time  has 
done  his  perfect  work,  Stephen  Girard,  mariner  and  mer- 
chant, may  be  found  to  have  come  nearer  immortality  than 
the  long  procession  of  kings  and  cardinals,  nobles  and 

1From  Best  American  Orations  of  To-day,  published  by  Hinds, 
Noble  &  Eldredge,  New  York.  Used  by  permission. 


2l6  FORMS  OF  PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

statesmen,  whose  power  was  mighty  in  their  own  days,  but 
who  are  only  on  their  way  to  oblivion. 

Unity  and  progress  are  the  watchwords  of  Divine  guid- 
ance, and  every  great  event,  or  series  of  events,  has  been 
for  the  good  of  the  race.  Were  this  the  proper  time,  I  could 
show  that  wars  —  and  wars  ought  to  be  banished  forever 
from  the  face  of  the  earth ;  that  pestilences  —  and  the  time 
is  coming  when  they  will  be  no  more  ;  that  persecutions  and 
inquisitions  —  and  liberty  of  thought  is  the  richest  pearl  of 
life,  —  that  all  these  things  —  wars,  pestilences,  and  per- 
secutions—  were  but  helps  to  the  unity  of  mankind.  All 
things,  including  our  own  natures,  bind  us  together  for  deep 
and  unrelenting  purposes.  It  has  been  wisely  ordained 
that  no  set  of  creatures  of  our  race  shall  be  beyond  the 
reach  of  others,  —  so  lofty  that  they  will  not  fear  reproach. 
If  the  lofty  and  the  learned  do  not  lift  us  up,  we  drag  them 
down.  But  unity  is  not  the  only  watchword;  there  must 
be  progress  also.  Since  by  a  law  we  cannot  evade  we  are  to 
keep  together,  and  since  we  are  to  progress,  we  must  do 
it  together,  and  nobody  must  be  left  behind.  This  is 
not  a  matter  of  philosophy  ;  it  is  a  matter  of  fact.  No  prog- 
ress which  did  not  lift  all,  ever  lifted  any.  If  we  let  the 
poison  of  filthy  disease  percolate  through  the  hovels  of  the 
poor,  Death  knocks  at  the  palace  gates.  If  we  leave  to  the 
greater  horror  of  ignorance  any  portion  of  our  race,  the  con- 
sequences of  ignorance  strike  us  all,  and  there  is  no  escape. 
We  must  all  move,  but  we  must  all  keep  together.  It  is 
only  when  the  rear  guard  comes  up  that  the  vanguard  can 
go  on. 

Stephen  Girard  must  have  understood  this.  He  took 
under  his  charge  the  progress  of  those  who  needed  his  aid, 
knowing  that  if  they  were  added  to  the  list  of  good  citizens, 
to  the  catalogue  of  the  moral,  enterprising,  and  useful  men, 
there  was  so  much  added,  not  to  their  happiness  only,  but 
to  the  welfare  of  the  race  to  which  he  belonged.  For  his 


ADDRESSES  FOR  SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  217 

orphans  the  vanguard  need  not  wait.  He  also  understood 
what  education  was.  Most  men,  brought  up  as  he  was  on 
shipboard  and  on  shore,  with  few  books  and  fewer  studies, 
if  they  cared  for  learning  at  all,  would  have  had  for  learn- 
ing an  uncouth  reverence,  such  as  the  savage  has  for  his 
idol,  a  reverence  for  the  fancied  magnificence  of  the  unknown. 
This  would  have  led  him  to  establish  a  university  devoted 
to  out-of-the-way  learning  far  beyond  his  ken,  or  to  link  his 
name  to  glories  to  which  he  could  not  aspire.  But  the  man 
who  named  his  vessels  after  the  great  French  authors  of 
his  age,  and  who  read  their  works  himself,  knew  from  them, 
and  from  his  own  laborious  and  successful  life,  that  book 
learning  was  not  all  of  education,  and  so  gave  his  orphans 
an  entrance  into  a  practical  world  with  such  learning  as 
left  the  whole  field  of  learning  before  them,  if  they  wanted 
it,  with  power  to  make  fortunes  besides. 

Stephen  Girard  was  the  greatest  merchant  of  his  time, 
with  the  noblest  ambition  of  them  all.  He  was  so  resolute 
in  his  pursuit  of  wealth,  and  so  coldly  determined  in  all  his 
endeavors,  that  he  seems  to  have  uncovered  to  few  or  to 
none  the  generous  purpose  of  his  heart.  "  My  actions  must 
make  my  life,"  he  said,  and  of  his  life  not  one  moment  was 
wasted.  "Facts  and  things  rather  than  words  and  signs  " 
were  the  warp  and  woof  of  his  existence.  No  wonder  he 
left  the  injunction  that  this  should  be  the  teaching  of  those 
objects  of  his  bounty  into  whose  faces  he  was  never  to 
look. 

The  vast  wealth  which  Girard  had  was  of  itself  alone 
evidence  of  greatness.  Fortunes  may  be  made  and  lost. 
Fortunes  may  be  inherited.  These  things  mean  nothing. 
But  the  fortune  which  endowed  Girard  College  was  made 
and  firmly  held  in  a  hand  of  eighty  years.  That  meant 
greatness.  But  when  the  dead  hand  opens  and  pours  the 
rich  bloom  of  a  preparation  for  life  over  six  thousand  boys 
in  the  half  century  which  has  gone  and  thousands  in  centuries 


2l8  FORMS  OF   PUBLIC   ADDRESS 

to  come,  that  means  more  than  greatness.  Mr.  Girartl  gave 
more  than  his  money.  He  put  into  his  enterprise  his  own 
powerful  brain,  and,  like  the  ships  that  he  sent  to  sea,  long 
after  his  death  the  adventure  came  home  laden,  not  with  the 
results  of  his  capital  alone,  but  of  his  forethought  and  his 
genius.  He  builded  for  so  many  years  that  stars  will  be 
cold  before  his  work  is  finished.  We  envious  people,  who 
cannot  be  wealthy,  avenge  ourselves  by  thinking  and  pro- 
claiming that  the  pursuit  of  wealth,  is  sordid  and  stifles  the 
nobler  sentiments  of  the  soul.  Whether  this  be  so  or  not, 
if  whoever  makes  to  grow  two  blades  of  grass  where  but  one 
grew  before,  is  a  benefactor  of  his  race ;  he  also  is  a  bene- 
factor who  makes  two  ships  sail  the  sea  where  but  one  en- 
countered its  storms  before.  However  sordid  the  owner 
may  be,  this  is  a  benefit  of  which,  he  cannot  deprive  the 
world. 

That  men  who  have  achieved  great  riches  are  not  always 
shut  out  by  their  riches  from  the  nobler  emotions,  Stephen 
Girard  was  himself  a  most  illustrious  example.  A  hundred 
years  ago  Philadelphia  was  under  the  black  horror  of  plague. 
So  terrible  was  the  fear  that  fell  upon  the  city  that  the 
tenderest  of  domestic  ties  —  the  love  of  husband  and  wife 
and  of  parents  for  children  —  seemed  obliterated.  Even 
gold  lost  its  power  in  the  presence  of  impending  death. 
There  was  no  refuge  even  in  the  hospital,  which,  reeking 
with  disease,  was  a  hell  out  of  which  there  was  no  redemp- 
tion. Neither  money  nor  affection  could  buy  service.  "  Fear 
was  on  every  soul." 

Girard  was  then  in  the  prime  of  life,  forty-two  years  old, 
in  health  and  strength,  already  rich,  and  with  a  future  as 
secure  as  ever  falls  to  human  lot.  Of  his  own  accord,  as  a 
volunteer,  he  took  charge  of  the  interior  of  the  deadly  hos- 
pital, and  for  two  long  and  weary  months  stood  face  to  face 
with  Death. 

A  poet  has  sung  of  what  makes  the  little  song  linger  in 


ADDRESSES  FOR   SPECIAL  OCCASIONS  219 

our  hearts  forever  while  epics  perish  and  tragedies  pass  out 
of  sight.  Why  this  is  so  we  shall  never  know  by  reason 
alone.  Deep  down  in  the  human  heart  there  is  a  tenderness 
for  self-sacrifice  which  makes  it  seem  loftier  than  the  love 
of  glory,  and  reveals  the  possibility  of  the  eternal  soul. 

Wars  and  sieges  pass  away  and  great  intellectual  efforts 
cease  to  stir  our  hearts,  but  the  man  who  sacrifices  himself 
for  his  fellows  lives  forever. 

We  forget  the  war  in  which  was  the  siege  of  Zutphen, 
and  almost  the  city  itself,  but  we  shall  never  forget  the 
death  of  Sir  Philip  Sidney.  Scholars  alone  read  the  work 
of  his  life,  but  all  mankind  honors  him  in  the  story  of  his 
death.  The  great  war  of  the  Crimea,  in  our  own  day,  with 
its  generals  and  marshals,  and  its  bands  of  storming  soldiery, 
has  almost  passed  from  our  memories,  but  the  time  will 
never  come  when  the  charge  of  Balaklava  will  cease  to  stir 
the  heart  or  pass  from  story  or  from  song.  It  happened  to 
Stephen  Girard,  mariner  and  merchant,  seeking  wealth  and 
finding  it,  whose  ships  traveled  every  sea,  whose  intellect 
penetrated  a  hundred  years  into  the  future,  to  light  up  his 
life  by  a  deed  more  noble  than  the  dying  courtesy  of  Sidney 
and  braver  than  the  charge  of  the  Six  Hundred,  for  he 
walked  under  his  own  orders  day  by  day  and  week  by  week, 
shoulder  to  shoulder  with  death,  and  was  not  afraid.  How 
fit,  indeed,  it  is  that  amidst  the  temples  of  learning  which 
are  the  tribute  to  his  intellect,  should  stand  the  tablet  which 
is  the  tribute  to  his  heart. 

Surely,  if  the  immortal  dead,  serene  with  the  wisdom  of 
eternity,  are  not  above  all  joy  and  pride,  he  must  feel  a  thrill 
to  know  that  no  mariner  or  merchant  ever  sent  forth  a  ven- 
ture upon  unknown  seas  which  came  back  with  richer  car- 
goes or  in  statelier  ships. 

Assignment :  Write  an  address  for  an  occasion 
of  local  or  general  interest. 


220  FORMS   OF   PUBLIC   ADDRESS 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

1.  A  dedicatory  address : 

a.  The  dedication  of  a  public  school  building  :  The  pub- 
lic school  as  a  government  investment;  The  true  pur- 
pose of  the  public  school;  Why  this  building  was 
constructed. 

6.  The  dedication  of  a  city  park :  Why  our  city  has  pro- 
vided this  park ;  One  duty  of  a  city  to  her  people  ; 
The  question  of  entertainment. 

c.  The  dedication  of  a  public  library  building:  What 
this  building  will  mean  to  the  community ;  The  pur- 
pose which  the  public  library  accomplishes. 

2.  An  Arbor   Day   address :  Why   Arbor   Day   should   be 
observed  by  the  public  schools ;  Our  friends,  the  trees ; 
The  place  of  trees  in  literature. 

3.  A   Thanksgiving  address:   What  Thanksgiving  should 
mean  to  the  nation;  to  the  individual.     The  spirit  of 
the  Pilgrims. 

THE  ORATION 

The  greatest  public  men  are  usually  the  most 
enthusiastic  supporters  of  oratorical  contests. 
Many  of  them  can  trace  their  interest  in  public 
affairs  to  debates  in  which  they  took  part  when 
they  were  in  high  school  or  college.  Though  they 
often  smile  at  the  assurance  with  which  imma- 
ture students  assert  opinions  about  profound  sub- 
jects, they  realize  that  these  contests  bring  many 
new  and  broad  subjects  into  the  horizon  of  the 
student,  teaching  him  to  think  independently  and 
to  express  his  ideas  logically,  in  a  well  organized 
and  effective  manner. 


THE   ORATION  221 

The  length  of  the  oration  is  determined  by  the 
rules  of  the  contest :  generally  it  is  from  ten  to  fif- 
teen minutes  in  length.  The  subject  is  usually 
chosen  by  the  contestants. 

The  importance  of  choosing  a  good  subject  can 
hardly  be  overemphasized.  The  subject  should  be 
of  such  far-reaching  and  universal  interest  xhe  Sub- 
that  none  of  the  judges  will  be  antago-  Ject 
nized,  since  it  sometimes  happens  that  the  best 
oration  fails  to  win  because  one  of  the  judges  dis- 
likes the  subject  matter.  The  student  should 
choose  a  subject  that  he  is  especially  qualified  to 
discuss.  If  he  is  a  student  of  history  and  govern- 
ment, he  should  discuss  a  social  or  political  move- 
ment, and  its  significance.  If  the  student  is 
particularly  interested  in  the  study  of  literature, 
let  him  speak  about  a  literary  movement,  a  literary 
character,  the  work  of  a  great  writer,  or  the  influ- 
ence of  a  certain  piece  of  literature.  If  the  student 
is  of  foreign  birth  he  may  discuss  a  question  that 
concerns  the  people  of  his  fatherland.  The  farm 
boy  may  speak  about  a  question  in  agriculture,  and 
the  negro  may  discuss  the  race  problem. 

An  oration  should  appeal  to  the  emotions  and  the 
will  as  well  as  to  the  intellect.  Its  purpose  should 
be  to  arouse  and  convince  the  audience,  to  The  Pur- 
bring  forcibly  and  vividly  to  their  atten-  P°se 
tion  the  importance  of  the  question  which  forms 
the  subject  matter  of  the  debate.  For  instance, 


222  FORMS  OF  PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

its  purpose  may  be  to  show  that  a  man  should  be 
honored  because  he  championed  a  great  principle, 
or  that  a  society,  an  institution,  or  a  movement 
should  be  supported  because  it  is  doing  something 
beneficial ;  again,  its  purpose  may  be  to  show  that 
a  certain  incident  is  especially  important  in  history 
because  it  has  influenced  civilization  and  will  con- 
tinue to  influence  it.  Thus  the  purpose  of  an 
oration  is  usually  twofold,  —  to  give  information 
and  to  persuade. 

When  a  student  has  chosen  a  subject  and  has  de- 
cided, though  perhaps  tentatively,  what  the  pur- 
The  Choice  P°se  of  his  oration  is  to  be,  he  should 
of  Material  proceed  to  get  definite  knowledge  regard- 
ing his  subject  and  to  strengthen  his  convictions 
regarding  it.  He  should  go  to  various  books  and 
magazines  for  information  and  consult  men  who 
have  studied  the  subject.  He  should  gather  as 
many  different  opinions  regarding  the  subject  as 
possible,  for  if  he  studies  only  one  book  or  one 
magazine  or  one  author,  his  oration  may  be  rejected 
because  it  lacks  originality.  Furthermore,  if  he 
takes  notes,  he  should  be  careful  not  to  copy  sen- 
tences word  for  word  and  not  to  paraphrase  consec- 
utive thoughts.  To  copy  even  a  single  sentence 
without  saying  that  it  is  quoted  or  to  paraphrase 
the  thought  of  another  is  plagiarism ;  and  if  a  con- 
testant does  either,  he  runs  a  risk  of  detection  and 
the  consequent  disgrace  of  being  barred  from  the 


THE  ORATION  223 

contest.  It  is  best  to  read  for  general  information, 
to  give  the  sources  of  all  statistics  used,  and  to  be 
influenced  as  little  as  possible  by  the  thought  of 
other  writers.  The  oration  that  expresses  the 
thought  and  feeling  of  the  contestant  will  probably 
have  unity  of  tone  and  the  force  of  sincerity ;  and 
these  characteristics  will  be  lacking  in  an  oration 
that  is  a  mosaic  of  fine  thoughts  culled  from  the 
writings  of  others. 

An  oration  should  always  be  dignified  and  se- 
rious ;  it  never  should  have  the  informal,  conversa- 
tional tone  of  the  essay,  nor  should  it  ever 
lapse  into  the  playful  mood  of  the  after- 
dinner  speech.  It  should  seem  to  be  the  expression 
of  undisputed  facts  :  not  the  mere  expression  of 
the  author's  personal  opinion.  Often  the  style  of 
the  oration  is  impassioned  because  of  the  earnest 
conviction  of  the  author.  This  impassioned  style 
is  most  often  found  in  the  last  part  where  the  ora- 
tion should  rise  to  a  climax. 

The  sentence  structure  has  much  to  do  in  mak- 
ing the  style  seem  vigorous  and  forceful,  or  weak 
and  rambling.  Variety  in  sentence  structure  is  to 
be  sought,  but  long,  highly  complex  sentences  that 
are  hard  to  analyze  should  be  avoided.  The  bal- 
anced sentence,  if  not  used  too  much,  is  effective 
in  an  oration,  especially  in  the  conclusion  ;  and 
interrogative  and  exclamatory  sentences  may  be 
used  occasionally. 


224  FORMS   OF   PUBLIC   ADDRESS 

THE  STRUCTURE 

There  are  not  many  in  an  average  audience  who 
are  sufficiently  attentive  to  catch  all  the  ideas  in 
an  oration,  nor  are  there  many  who  are  thoughtful 
enough  to  pick  out  the  essential  parts  of  the  argu- 
ment, unless  the  speaker  makes  those  parts  espe- 
cially emphatic.  Therefore,  the  author  should 
endeavor  to  show  clearly  at  the  beginning  of  the 
oration  and  at  the  beginning  of  each  of  its  prin- 
cipal parts  just  what  he  is  going  to  talk  about. 
Furthermore,  when  he  goes  from  one  of  the 
principal  parts  of  the  argument  to  the  next  he 
should  take  pains  to  impress  his  hearers  with 
the  fact  that  he  has  completed  one  part  of 
the  argument  and  that  he  is  taking  up  another 
part.  This  may  be  done  by  a  transitional  sentence 
or  paragraph,  such  as  the  following :  "  Such  was 
the  nature  of  the  movement  for  the  suppression  of 
child  labor  and  such  were  the  conditions  that  led  to 
it.  Now  let  us  see  how  this  movement  has  affected 
child  life."  The  speaker  can  also  aid  the  audience 
in  understanding  that  there  is  a  transition  in  the 
argument  by  pausing  a  moment  when  he  has  com- 
pleted one  part  of  the  oration. 

The  discussion,  or  body  of  the  oration,  is  usually 
preceded  by  a  short  introduction.  This  is  to  the 
The  Intro-  oration  what  the  topic  sentence  is  to  the 
duction  paragraph :  it  tells  the  hearer  briefly 
what  the  oration  is  to  be  about.  But  the  intro- 


THE   ORATION  225 

duction  does  more  than  this :  it  emphasizes  the 
importance  of  the  subject,  and  may  tell  what  the 
principal  divisions  of  the  oration  are  to  be.  Thus, 
in  the  introduction  of  the  oration,  "  International- 
ism," the  author  says,  "  What  is  the  origin,  the 
development,  the  mission  of  this  bond  of  fellow- 
ship among  the  nations  ?  " 

The  success  of  an  oration  is  often  determined  to 
no  small  extent  by  the  arrangement  of  the  subject 
matter  in  the  discussion.  The  method  TheDis- 
recom mended  by  the  negro  preacher  for  cussion 
the  construction  of  a  sermon  deserves  the  re- 
spectful consideration  of  all  oratorical  contestants. 
He  said,  "  First  you  must  splanify  awhile ;  then 
you  must  argufy  awhile;  and  then  you  must  put 
in  the  rousements."  This  method  suggests  that  a 
sermon  should  be  divided  into  three  principal  parts. 
In  the  successful  orations  of  collegiate  contests,  the 
discussion  has  from  three  to  five  principal  divisions, 
but  the  general  method  of  the  negro  minister  is 
usually  followed. 

The  first  part  of  a  successful  oration  should  be 
explanatory,  describing  the  conditions  that  called 
forth  the  man,  the  movement,  or  the  institution 
which  constitutes  the  subject.  If,  for  example, 
the  subject  is,  "  The  Mission  of  Count  Tolstoy," 
and  the  purpose  of  the  oration  is  to  show  that 
Count  Tolstoy  should  be  honored  because  he  did 
much  to  teach  men  to  be  altruistic,  the  first  part 


226  FORMS  OF  PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

of  the  discussion  should  give  the  facts  regarding 
Count  Tolstoy  and  the  society  in  which  he  lived 
that  would  explain  why  he  became  a  great  apostle 
of  altruism. 

The  explanation  in  the  first  part  of  the  discus- 
sion should  prepare  the  hearers  for  the  real  mes- 
sage of  the  oration.  The  speaker  should  define 
clearly  his  conclusions  regarding  the  subject,  and 
endeavor  to  convince  the  hearers  that  the  facts 
that  are  set  forth  are  really  important.  If  the 
topic  thought  is.  Count  Tolstoy  should  be  honored 
because  he  did  much  to  teach  men  to  be  altruistic, 
this  part  of  the  discussion  might  show  what  he  did 
to  make  men  sympathetic  and  altruistic.  If  the 
topic  thought  is,  as  in  the  example  given,  Nations, 
like  individuals,  should  be  mutually  helpful,  this 
part  of  the  discussion  should  show  how  the  spirit 
of  helpfulness  has  developed  among  the  nations, 
and  what  that  development  has  meant  to  the  world 
at  large.  The  nature  of  the  topic  thought  and  the 
purpose  of  the  oration  will  help  the  speaker  to  de- 
cide whether  he  should  present  the  topic  thought 
in  one,  two,  or  three  principal  divisions. 

The  last  part  of  the  discussion  emphasizes  the 
significance  of  the  subject.  It  may  show  what  has 
been  accomplished  by  the  person  or  thing  that  is 
the  subject  of  the  oration ;  or  it  may  show  the  in- 
fluence the  person  or  thing  is  destined  to  possess 
in  the  future ;  again,  it  may  contain  an  appeal  to 


THE  ORATION  227 

support  an  institution  or  a  movement,  or  to  honor 
a  person  who  is  worthy  of  honor.  Of  course  the 
subject  matter  of  the  last  part  of  the  discussion 
must  be  a  logical  deduction  from  the  preceding 
part,  a  logical  continuation  of  the  topic  thought. 
It  should  be  characterized  by  an  appeal  to  the  will 
and  the  emotions  of  the  hearers ;  that  is,  it  should 
contain  the  element  of  persuasion.  The  last  part 
of  the  discussion  of  "  The  Mission  of  Count  Tol- 
stoy" might  set  forth  the  influence  that  Count 
Tolstoy  has  had,  and  will  have,  upon  civilization ; 
with  an  appeal  to  the  world  to  further  his  work. 

The  discussion  is  usually  followed  by  a  short 
concluding  paragraph,  intended  to  emphasize  the 
message  of  the  oration.  As  it  is  the  final  The  Con- 
statement  of  the  speaker,  it  should  be  his  elusion 
strongest  appeal  to  the  conscience  and  the  will  of 
the  hearers.  An  effective  conclusion  of  a  college 
oration  is  quoted  on  page  97. 

Example :  — 

INTERNATIONALISM  * 

The  nation  is  composed  of  individuals,  as  the  mass  is  com- 
posed of  atoms.  In  the  beautiful  discovery  of  Newton,  we 
learn  that  the  same  law  which  governs  the  smallest  atom 
governs  also  the  largest  mass,  even  to  the  universe  of 
planets  and  suns.  Individuals  bound  in  fellowship  by  one 
great  rule  of  right,  consent  to  have  the  fierceness  of  their 

1  By  James  Henry  Mays.  From  Honor  Orations.  Published  by 
The  University  of  Michigan  Oratorical  Association.  Copyright, 
1901. 


228  FORMS  OF  PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

nature  restrained  for  the  common  welfare.  They  are  con- 
strained to  live  with  common  purposes,  strive  for  common 
advancement,  rejoice  in  common  blessings,  suffer  common 
disasters ;  ia  common  they  glory  in  mutual  happiness,  and 
in  the  victories  of  peace,  "no  less  renowned  than  war."  So 
nations,  after  squandering  their  resources  upon  the  art  of 
destruction,  after  ages  of  dreadful  warfare,  are  likewise  com- 
ing to  realize  the  awful  folly  of  continual  discord.  They, 
too,  are  beginning  to  appreciate  the  significance  of  moral 
laws;  to  beware  lest  they  disregard  the  divine  command, 
"Love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself  ";  to  observe  the  same  great 
rule  of  right  that  binds  individuals  in  fellowship. 

This  growing  spirit  of  mutual  helpfulness  we  call  Inter- 
nationalism. What  is  the  origin,  the  development,  the  mis- 
sion of  this  bond  of  fellowship  among  the  nations  ? 

I.  With  our  savage  forefathers,  the  family  was  the  nation. 
Apart  from  actual  kinship,  there  was  no  brotherhood. 
Every  man  outside  his  petty  circle  was  an  enemy  to  be  slain 
as  the  wild  beast  of  the  jungles.  Beginning  to  realize  the 
strength  of  united  action,  families  formed  into  tribes  under 
chiefs  to  wage  more  relentless  warfare  upon  other  tribes.  As 
the  rays  of  civilization  penetrated  deeper  into  the  gloom, 
these  tribes,  stirred  by  the  same  restless  energy,  united  into 
larger  communities,  and  settled  upon  fixed  habitations.  Land, 
instead  of  kinship,  became  the  basis  of  society,  and  was 
occupied  by  petty  lordships  and  communities,  separate  and 
distinct.  At  first,  they  professed  no  common  interest, 
cultivated  no  friendly  relations,  recognized  no  rights  claimed 
by  members  of  other  communities,  and  treated  all  men  out- 
side the  narrow  limits  of  their  province  as  enemies.  Each 
held  it  to  be  the  great  aim  of  life  to  carry  on  successful  war- 
fare, and  zealously  maintained,  as  do  nations  now,  the  right 
to  make  war  on  every  other  community.  Their  association 
was  for  mutual  destruction.  Every  principality  was  intoler- 
ant, bigoted,  selfish.  Within  their  own  border  lines,  the 


THE  ORATION  2 29 

people  were  enjoined  to  recognize  the  brotherhood  of  man ; 
outside  these  limits,  they  were  licensed  and  encouraged  to 
pilfer  and  murder  without  restraint.  Within  their  borders, 
they  lived  in  harmony ;  outside,  they  roamed  the  seas  as 
pirates,  ravaged  the  land  as  bandits,  annihilated  villages, 
gave  no  quarter,  sparing  not  even  women  and  children.  It 
was  one  continuous  story  of  dreadful  warfare  from  the  time 

"  When  man  walked  with  beast, 
Joint  tenant  of  the  shade." 

Gradually  it  dawned  upon  the  minds  of  men  that  there 
was  nothing  in  political  lines  to  make  them  foes ;  they 
began  to  realize  that  they  were  men  who  had  much  in  com- 
mon. They  said  one  to  another,  "  We  will  further  unite  for 
common  defense  and  mutual  advancement."  Just  as  the 
smaller  bodies  by  degrees  had  been  drawn  into  fellowship, 
these  larger  bodies  were  fused  into  nations.  Primitive 
Rome  was  formed  by  the  union  of  small  communities.  The 
countless  principalities  of  Great  Britain  were  gradually 
merged  into  seven  kingdoms,  and  then  united  into  one  great 
kingdom  under  Egbert,  the  Saxon.  In  France  we  see 
Roman,  Iberian,  Teuton,  and  Celt,  once  stirred  by  angry 
passions,  now  blended  into  a  powerful  republic.  Spain,  a 
composite  of  numerous  races  of  different  religion  and  govern- 
ment, became  a  nation  in  the  fifteenth  century  by  the  union 
of  Castile  and  Aragon.  Germany,  once  consisting  of  more 
than  three  hundred  distinct  principalities,  each  in  bloody 
strife  with  the  other,  now  presents  a  mighty  empire,  united 
at  home  and  respected  abroad.  And  on  this  side  the  seas, 
many  great  states,  indifferent  to  the  common  weal,  disposed 
to  be  independent  sovereignties,  united  their  interests,  and 
to-day  present  a  typical  example  of  what  brotherly  spirit 
may  do  for  the  nations  of  the  world.  Thus,  with  the 
gradual  association  of  tribes  and  communities,  great  nations 
were  formed,  each  invoking  the  blessings  of  united,  friendly 


230  FORMS   OF  PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

action  upon  its  numerous  principalities.  The  torch  of  the 
incendiary  was  extinguished,  the  license  of  the  robber 
revoked,  the  red  hand  of  the  assassin  arrested,  the  mad  fury 
of  the  mob  restrained,  and  the  once  hostile  factions  were 
welded  into  great  nations. 

II.  Such  was  the  result  of  fellowship  of  communities. 
Now  consider  the  development  of  this  spirit  among  nations. 
Internally,  each  rejoiced  in  the  mutual  friendship  of  its 
numerous  provinces ;  but,  strange  to  say,  toward  its  neigh- 
bors, assumed  a  hostile  front.  This  attitude  of  the  nations 
caused  Burke  to  declare  that  friendly  international  relations 
would  afford  a  pleasing  theme  for  the  historian,  but,  "  alas  ! 
such  history  would  not  fill  ten  pages."  These  cordial  re- 
lations between  states  of  the  modern  world  had  their  begin- 
ning in  the  Peace  of  Westphalia,  which  was  confirmed  by 
the  principal  nations  of  Europe.  Permanent  legations  were 
then  first  securely  established.  Since  then,  says  Emerson, 
"  all  history  is  the  decline  of  war."  Since  then,  says  Sir 
Henry  Maine,  "  a  moral  brotherhood  in  the  whole  human 
race  has  been  steadily  gaining  ground."  Twenty  years  ago, 
Gladstone  declared  that  there  had  been  reserved  for  Eng- 
land a  great  and  honorable  destiny  in  promoting  interna- 
tionalism. Since  these  words  were  spoken,  thirty-eight 
powerful  nations  have  united  their  moral  forces,  by  the 
treaty  of  Geneva,  as  a  safeguard  against  the  excesses, 
miseries,  and  ferocities  of  war.  They  have  bound  them- 
selves to  use  every  means  to  relieve  the  suffering  of  sick 
and  wounded  soldiers  ;  to  discourage  war,  as  the  best  means 
of  attaining  that  end ;  to  encourage  international  good  will  ; 
to  mitigate  international  calamities  in  time  of  peace;  and 
to  place  international  concord  on  a  more  enduring  basis. 

This  spirit  of  mutual  fellowship  is  fast  pervading  all 
human  society.  From  the  family  circle  to  the  tribal  com- 
munity, from  the  village  clan  to  the  broader  province,  from 
jealous  statehood  to  national  commonwealth,  the  great  rule 


THE  ORATION  231 

of  right  is  becoming  broad  enough  to  embrace  all  mankind 
in  the  general  harmony.  In  recognition  of  this  unity  of 
interest  the  Pan- American  congress  assembled  at  Washing- 
ton with  the  highest  motives  that  ever  actuated  international 
movements.  Representatives  of  half  the  civilized  world 
met,  not  to  arouse  bitter  prejudices,  but  for  better  mutual 
understanding ;  not  to  obtain  unfair  advantages,  but  to  pro- 
mote the  general  welfare ;  not  to  cultivate  the  art  and 
terrible  amusement  of  war,  but  to  form  closer  commercial 
relations ;  not  to  witness  the  parade  of  military  forces,  but 
to  obviate  all  necessity  for  the  maintenance  of  navies  and 
great  standing  armies,  such  as  are  now  crushing  out  the 
life  of  Europe.  Let  those  who  would  sneer  at  the  growing 
spirit  of  internationalism,  remember  that  never  before  did 
there  convene  a  congress  of  nations  with  the  common  pur- 
pose of  agreeing,  not  upon  military  plans,  not  to  incite  their 
people  to  tumult  and  carnage,  not  to  foster  cruelty  and 
superstition,  not  to  do  homage  to  the  God  of  Battles,  but  to 
adopt  the  motto  of  peace  and  fellowship,  and  thus  secure 
enduring  prosperity  in  the  western  world. 

III.  Brief  as  has  been  the  history  of  these  great  move- 
ments, certain  principles  and  methods  have  been  clearly  de- 
fined. What,  then,  is  the  mission  of  internationalism  ? 
Though  slow  in  development,  its  spirit  has  long  been  ap- 
pealing to  the  better  nature  of  the  individual  man,  and  is 
now  beginning  to  pervade  the  councils  of  the  nations. 
What  is  there  in  boundary  lines  to  convert  a  brother-man 
into  a  deadly  foe  ?  Ought  the  conduct  of  nation  toward 
nation  to  be  less  humane  than  that  of  man  toward  man  ? 
Shall  nations  still  retain  barbarous  methods  of  determining 
justice,  while  judicial  tribunals  by  exercise  of  reason  ad- 
judicate the  rights  of  individuals  ?  Shall  we  execute  a 
man  for  committing  a  single  murder,  and  glorify  a  nation 
for  slaughtering  its  thousands  ?  Is  that  voice  of  thunder, 
"  Thou  shalt  not  kill,"  prolonged  and  reechoed  throughout 


232  FORMS  OF  PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

the  earth  by  Christian  churches,  to  have  an  awful  meaning 
to  individuals,  and  signify  nothing  to  nations  ?  By  what 
reasoning  can  the  crime  of  the  individual  become  the  glory 
of  the  nation  ?  Must  man  put  forth  every  energy  against 
pestilence  and  famine,  while  nations  upon  the  slightest  pre- 
text "  let  slip  the  dogs  of  war  ?  "  Must  he  revere  and 
cherish  his  religion,  and  yet  allow  the  state  to  profane  it  ? 
Must  he  continue  to  extol  virtue  to  the  skies,  and  yet  per- 
mit nations  to  dethrone  it  ?  Must  he  strive  for  knowledge, 
while  nations  misapply  and  pervert  it  ?  Oh  why  must  man 
continue  to  toil,  and  permit  the  product  of  his  hand  and 
brain  to  be  squandered  upon  the  means  of  destruction  ?  If 
it  has  proved  well  for  individuals,  families,  tribes,  commun- 
ities, and  provinces  to  strive  peaceably  together,  should  not 
the  larger  masses  of  men  profit  by  such  example  ?  It  is 
the  mission  of  internationalism  to  answer  these  questions, 
and  to  say  to  governments,  into  whose  hands  the  welfare  of 
mankind  is  placed,  — 

"  Therefore  take  heed 

How  you  awake  the  sleeping  sword  of  war ; 
In  the  name  of  God,  take  heed." 

Man  may  yet  be  blinded  by  prejudice,  nations  may  yet 
be  lacerated  by  war,  but  of  this  we  may  be  assured  :  that  in 
the  distresses  that  mankind  must  suffer,  ignorance  will  never 
again  be  so  potent  a  factor,  for  men  are  now  heirs  to  the 
wisdom  of  the  ages ;  difference  in  religion  will  never  again 
so  arouse  the  spirit  of  intolerance,  for  man  must  be  left  un- 
fettered to  obey  the  dictates  of  his  conscience ;  difference  in 
race  and  language  will  never  again  be  so  strong  a  barrier  to 
friendly  intercourse,  for  all  nations  are  coming  to  recognize 
the  brotherhood  of  man ;  distance  will  never  again  render 
international  interest  so  vague  and  remote,  for  the  messengers 
of  intelligence  and  of  commerce,  like  shuttles,  are  rushing 
to  and  fro  over  the  earth,  "  weaving  the  nations  into  one." 


THE  ORATION  233 

Stupendous  political  movements,  which  in  time  past  would 
have  brought  havoc  and  carnage,  must  in  the  future  be  con- 
ducted through  quiet  deliberations.  Questions,  which  a  few 
years  ago  would  have  been  sure  heralds  of  war,  must  be  de- 
termined before  a  supreme  court  of  the  nations.  Already 
it  is  the  law  of  nations  to  do  in  time  of  peace  the  most  good 
and  in  time  of  war  the  least  evil.  Arbitration  is  the  rule  ; 
and  when  war  does  occur,  it  is  divested  of  its  most  atrocious 
cruelties.  Nations  begin  to  realize  that  disaster  needs  no 
aid  or  encouragement  from  the  government ;  that  humanity 
will  suffer  enough  at  best ;  that  governments  are  the  ser- 
vants of  men,  and  not  their  masters  ;  that  they  are  institu- 
tions for  man's  benefit,  not  for  his  torture ;  that  they  are 
builders  and  not  destroyers  ;  that  they  are  means  to  an  end, 
and  that  end  the  advancement  of  civilization. 

This,  then,  is  the  mission  of  internationalism  :  that  the 
nations  instead  of  imitating  the  fierceness  of  the  tiger,  shall 
render  good  offices  one  unto  another ;  instead  of  rejoicing 
in  the  "  pomp  and  circumstance  of  glorious  war,"  shall 
tender  support  in  public  distress  ;  instead  of  invading,  bom- 
barding, and  pillaging  their  neighbors,  shall  afford  relief  in 
general  calamities  ;  and  that  instead  of  the  clank  of  arms 
and  the  cannon's  roar,  instead  of  the  crash  and  jar  of  artil- 
lery, the  tramp  of  the  war  horse,  the  glare  of  hungry  flames, 
the  pitiless  scenes  of  death,  decay,  and  famine,  we  may  be- 
hold the  nations  of  the  earth,  of  every  religion,  language, 
and  race,  firmly  bound  by  the  threads  of  commerce  and  the 
stronger  ties  of  brotherly  feeling ;  behold  them  flourishing 
together  in  the  arts  of  peace,  striving  with  common  impulses, 
combined  in  common  enterprises,  and  tendering  mutual  re- 
turns of  kindness  and  civility. 

Assignment :  Write  an  oration  on  some  dignified 
subject  in  which  you  are  genuinely  interested.  Be 
sure  to  support  your  contentions  with  solid  facts. 


234  FORMS  OF   PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

Suggested  subjects :  — 

1.  The  life  of  a  man ;  e.g.  Alexander  Hamilton,  Robert 
E.  Lee,  Luther  Burbank,  Thomas  A.  Edison. 

2.  A  social  or  political  question  of  serious  present  in- 
terest ;  e.g.  State  support  for  trade  schools ;  Inland  water- 
ways;   Irreverence,  America's  weakness;   The  function  of 
the    American   high    school ;    The    spirit   of   lawlessness ; 
Sectionalism;  Preservation  of  the  nation's  natural  wealth; 
The  awakening  of  China ;  Great  Britain's  problem ;  What 
we  owe  to  Panama ;  Africa. 

3.  An  historical  movement  or  incident  (one  that  has  in- 
fluenced civilization  or  one  that  should   teach   us  how  to 
solve  present  problems)  ;  e.g.  The  growth  of  religious  toler- 
ance ;  The  spirit  of  independent  investigation ;  Gettysburg. 

4.  A  literary  man,  character,  or  masterpiece  (origin,  in- 
fluence, and  message  for  us) ;  Kipling;  Hamlet;  Themes- 
sage  of  Shy  lock  ;  The  modern  problem  novel. 

THE    AFTER-DINNER    SPEECH 

In  the  preparation  of  an  after-dinner  speech  it  is 
well  to  remember  the  proverb  "  He  that  is  of  a 
merry  heart  hath  a  continual  feast."  For  good 
humor  and  the  spirit  of  comradeship  should  be  the 
prevailing  note  in  this  form  of  public  address. 

The  laws  of  hygiene  as  well  as  social  convention 
teach  that  the  dinner  hour  is  not  the  time  for  bit- 
terness and  sarcasm.  Of  course  foolish  buffoonery, 
and  the  cheap  pun  or  personal  remark  are  always  out 
of  place  among  cultured  people,  but  the  light-hearted 
humor,  the  good-natured  wit,  and  the  care-free 
mirth  of  good  after-dinner  speeches  are  only  the 


THE  AFTER-DINNER   SPEECH  235 

natural  expression  of  well-balanced,  well-trained 
minds,  at  ease. 

The  best  kind  of  humor  is  always  kindly,  for 
"  True  humor  proceeds  not  more  from  the  head 
than  the  heart."  *  Although  abstract  thought 
should  be  avoided,  an  underlying  tone  of  seriousness 
is  permissible  if  the  prevailing  quality  of  the  thought 
is  clear  and  concrete  and  the  speech  sparkles  with 
apt  quotation,  story,  or  reminiscence. 

There  are  two  types  of  after-dinner  speech,  the 
subjective  and  the  objective. 

In  the  subjective  type,  emphasis  is  placed  upon 
the  personal  feeling  and  the  relations  of  the  speaker 
to  the  class,  club,  or  organization  which  xhe  Sub- 
he  is  addressing.  The  spirit  of  comrade-  jective 
ship  and  sentiment  should  so  pervade  the  speech 
that  it  will  not  appear  egotistical.  The  example 
given  below  is  of  the  subjective  type. 

The  personal  significance  is  less  emphasized  in 
the  objective  form  of  after-dinner  speech,  The  Objec- 
the  speaker  dwelling  upon  subjects  of  tive 

general  interest.  This  type  need  not  be  less  enter- 
taining than  the  subjective.  It  may  be  enlivened 
by  apt  stories  and  quotations ;  or  it  may  be  made 
entertaining  by  the  original  way  in  which  the 
speaker  treats  the  subject.  Care,  however,  must 
be  given  to  the  organization,  for  every  after-dinner 
speech  should  present  a  definite  thought. 

1  Thomas  Carlyle,  Essay  on  Cervantes. 


236  FORMS  OF   PUBLIC  ADDRESS 

Example :  — 

OUR    COMPOSITIONS 

(J.  student's  theme,  written  for  an  imaginary  reunion  of  the  composi- 
tion class) 

A  gathering  of  this  kind  directs  our  minds  back  over  the 
years  to  schoolday  associations  and  experiences.  We  go 
back,  in  imagination,  to  long  nights  of  struggle,  when,  hard 
pressed  for  an  inspiration,  each  of  us  thought  in  common 
with  Shakespeare,  "  I  have  immortal  longings  in  me,"  and 
we  remember  how  we  wished  for  some  sleight-of-hand 
method  by  which  we  might  conjure  an  awe-inspiring  com- 
position from  the  shadowy  realms  of  thought. 

Boswell  has  said,  "  A  man  may  write  at  any  time  if  he 
will  set  himself  doggedly  at  it."  The  method  of  producing 
compositions  which  was  prescribed  by  poor,  patient,  dogged 
Boswell  seems  hopelessly  mundane  and  commonplace,  but 
it  was  usually  by  his  method  that  we  produced  our  themes. 
Of  course  there  were  exceptions.  All  of  us  know  that  it 
was  inspiration  and  genius  that  enabled  Mr.  Harner  to  write 
his  memorable  theme  against  woman's  suffrage,  which  ended 
forever  the  efforts  of  the  girls  to  show  that  women  should 
be  allowed  to  vote.  And  no  one  can  ever  convince  us  that 
Miss  Layman  composed  her  famous  theme,  "  The  Heartless- 
ness  of  the  Faculty,"  merely  by  Boswellian  doggedness. 
Perhaps  many  other  remarkable  productions  were  dashed  off 
by  members  of  our  class  in  moments  of  frenzied  inspiration 
and  added  to  the  world's  neglected  literature ;  however,  you 
will  agree  with  me  that  usually  the  production  of  a  theme 
required  much  burning  of  oil  and  biting  of  pencils. 

Some  day  we  may  forget  how  we  wrote  our  themes,  but 
we  shall  never  forget  how  we  delivered  our  first  oral  com- 
positions, or  "  talks."  We  went  to  class  determined  to  seem 
to  speak  extemporaneously,  though  each  of  us  secretly  car- 
ried a  carefully  organized  outline  that  might  be  consulted 


THE   AFTER-DINNER   SPEECH  237 

in  cases  of  emergency.  I,  for  one,  can  remember  distinctly 
how,  like  Lowell's  bashful  boy,  I  "  stood  first  on  one  foot, 
then  on  t'other "  while  I  spoke,  and  I  tremble  yet  when  I 
think  of  the  horrifying  feeling  that  came  over  me,  when,  in 
sore  need  of  help  from  my  outline,  I  discovered  that  in  my 
nervousness  I  had  folded  and  re-folded  the  paper  until  the 
writing  was  no  longer  legible.  Such  experiences  shortened 
many  of  our  first  "  short  talks,"  which  we  intended  to  be 
rather  short;  and  the  shortening  usually  had  ill  effects  on 
the  thought  that  we  wished  to  present.  However,  we  re- 
member that  some  one  has  said,  "Men  of  few  words  are  the 
best  men,"  and  with  this  for  consolation  we  try  to  forget 
that  our  first  talks  fell  rather  flat. 

Critics  tell  us  that  literature  is  not  often  evaluated  prop- 
erly when  it  is  first  presented  to  the  world.  The  criticism 
that  most  of  our  compositions  received  from  the  class  critics 
was,  "  It  was  interesting  and  well-organized "  ;  and  occa- 
sionally the  additional  verdict  was  given,  "  It  had  a  good 
tone,  but  —  etc."  To-day,  as  impartial  critics,  we  can  look 
on  the  literary  productions  of  our  schooldays  with  the  wis- 
dom and  candor  that  come  only  with  years  of  experience, 
and  ask,  What  really  was  the  worth  of  our  compositions  ? 

I  do  not  know  that  any  of  our  compositions  are  to  be 
found  in  the  books  of  our  library.  I  do  not  think  that  any 
of  them  ever  should  be  found  there.  However,  I  believe 
that  our  compositions  were  of  the  greatest  literary  worth,  — 
to  us.  Touchstone,  the  fool  of  Shakespeare's  play,  As  You 
Like  It,  said  of  his  wife,  Audrey,  "  An  ill-favored  thing,  sir, 
but  mine  own."  Our  compositions  were  to  us  what  Touch- 
stone's Audrey  was  to  him  ;  they  were  all  our  own.  Though 
they  did  not  have  the  grace  of  Stevenson's  essays,  we  appre- 
ciated the  grace  that  they  did  possess,  and  they  opened  our 
foolish  eyes  to  beauties  in  literature  that  wre  never  should 
have  seen  if  we  had  not  tried  to  write.  Before  we  wrote 
descriptive  themes,  the  descriptions  that  we  found  in  novels 


238  FORMS  OF   PUBLIC   ADDRESS 

were  nothing  more  than  descriptions,  and  we  skipped  them 
or  hurried  over  them  ;  but  after  we  wrote  descriptive  themes 
we  discovered  that  some  descriptions  are  better  than  others. 
We  learned  that  some  novelists  can  see  things,  and  that 
other  novelists  never  have  had  their  eyes  opened.  When 
we  found  a  novel  written  by  an  author  who  could  see  things, 
we  read  his  descriptions  and  enjoyed  them.  Yes,  our  com- 
positions were  literature  of  no  small  worth,  —  to  us;  and 
though  they  may  never  be  bound  with  leather  or  even  paper, 
they  will  be  bound  with  pleasant  memories  of  our  profitable 
and  happy  association  in  the  composition  class. 

When  the  student  writes  an  after-dinner  speech 
as  a  class  exercise  he  should  have  a  particular 
occasion  in  mind  for  which  the  speech  is  to  be 
used.  He  might  imagine  the  occasion  to  be  a  re- 
union; for  example,  a  reunion  of  a  family,  class, 
or  society ;  or  he  might  imagine  the  occasion  to  be 
a  banquet,  given  by  a  club  or  a  literary  society  in 
honor  of  a  distinguished  guest. 

Suggested  subjects :  The  right  to  free  speech ;  The  unity, 
proportion,  proper  arrangement,  and  coherence  of  the  com- 
position class;  The  boys  we  did  not  have;  "Words,  words, 
words  "  (Hamlet) ;  The  best  speech  I  ever  heard. 


CHAPTER    XII 

DEBATING 

NOTE. —  Before  this  lesson  is  studied,  the  discussion  of 
argumentation,  beginning  on  page  124,  should  be  carefully 
reviewed. 

Debating  is  the  act  of  presenting  arguments  both 
for  and  against  a  proposition  for  the  purpose  of 
determining  either  whether  the  proposi- 

r     _,      Definition 

tion  is  true  or  reasonable  or  advisable.  It 
I  try  to  decide  whether  or  not  it  would  be  advisable 
for  me  to  buy  a  fur  coat,  I  debate  (in  my  own 
mind)  the  proposition,  /  should  buy  a  fur  coat. 
When  a  proposition  is  debated  by  several  persons, 
some  usually  favor  the  proposition  and  others 
oppose  it.  In  such  cases  those  who  favor  the 
proposition  give  arguments  for  it  and  try  to  show 
that  the  arguments  against  it  are  not  sound  ;  while 
those  opposed  to  the  proposition  argue  against  it 
and  try  to  show  that  the  arguments  in  its  favor  are 
not  sound.  The  debates  in  courts  of  justice,  in 
legislatures,  and  in  debating  societies  are  of  this 
kind,  and  it  is  such  debates  that  we  are  to  discuss 
in  this  chapter. 

Now  how,  in  a  debate  of  this  sort,  may  one  dis- 

239 


240  DEBATING 

cnss  a  proposition  so  as  to  lead  his  audience  to  con- 
clude that  his  opinion  of  it  is  correct  ? 

Much  of  a  debater's  success  will  depend  on  his 
use  of  emphasis.  Important  parts  of  the  argument 
The  Use  of  should  be  given  prominence  both  of  space 
Emphasis  and  of  place.  They  should  be  given  time 
in  proportion  to  their  importance,  and  they  should 
be  considered  in  the  emphatic  parts  of  the  discus- 
sion, usually  at  the  beginning  or  end.  On  the 
other  hand,  arguments  of  small  importance  should 
be  stated  briefly  or  ignored  altogether.  A  debater 
will  waste  time  and  lose  the  confidence  of  his  audi- 
ence if  he  tries  to  make  a  mountain  out  of  a  mole 
hill. 

It  is  not  always  safe  for  a  debater  to  depend  on 
reasoning  alone  to  persuade  his  audience  that  his 
The  Use  of  v^ew  °^  ^e  proposition  is  correct.  Often 
Emotional  a  hearer  or  reader  is  so  strongly  opposed 
to  the  proposition  that  at  first  he  will 
not  listen  impartially  to  reasoning.  In  such  cases 
the  debater  should  try  to  obtain  the  good  will  of 
his  audience  before  he  states  his  main  arguments. 
This  may  often  be  accomplished  in  the  introduction 
by  explaining  the  proposition  in  an  earnest,  clear, 
and  straightforward  way.  A  debater  who  tries  to 
quibble  or  to  deceive  is  likely  to  antagonize  his 
audience,  while  one  who  tries  to  be  sincere  and 
honest  is  likely  to  gain  their  confidence  and  sym- 
pathy. 


DEBATING  241 

Sometimes  a  debater  makes  a  special  appeal  to 
the  emotions  of  his  audience  by  the  use  of  descrip- 
tion, narration,  or  exposition  that  contains  an 
element  of  argument.  Suppose  a  lawyer  sees  that 
the  jury  intend  to  convict  his  client  and  that  they 
will  not  listen  with  patience  to  reasoning.  Before 
arguing  in  favor  of  the  proposition,  The  man  is  not 
guilty,  he  might  try  to  gain  a  fair  hearing  by  telling 
the  jury  that  Americans  have  always  been  proud  of 
the  fact  that  they  believe  in  fair  play  ;  and  that  a 
man  accused  of  crime  in  America  always  has  the 
right  of  trial  before  an  impartial  jury.  After  stat- 
ing the  right  of  every  American  to  a  fan-  trial,  the 
lawyer  might  tell  of  incidents  in  his  client's  life  to 
show  that  he  had  always  been  considered  trust- 
worthy, implying,  of  course,  the  argument  that  this 
man  in  particular  should  receive  a  fair  trial.  After 
persuading  the  jurors  by  such  appeals  to  their  emo- 
tions to  give  the  man  a  fair  trial,  the  lawyer  might 
begin  to  present  reasons  to  prove  the  proposition, 
The  man  is  not  guilty. 

Of  course  no  debate  is  possible  until  the  subject 
is  definitely  stated.  The  subject  of  a  debate,  like  the 
subject  of  a  simple  argument,  is  a  propo-  The  Prop_ 
sition.  A  person's  rnind  should  be  so  osition 
well  trained  that  he  would  refuse  to  debate,  either 
formally  before  an  audience  or  informally  in  pri- 
vate conversation,  until  he  and  his  opponent  have 
decided  definitely  what  the  proposition  is,  about 


242  DEBATING 

which  they  disagree.  It  often  happens  that  two 
people  think  they  are  debating  a  proposition  when 
in  reality  one  is  trying  to  prove  one  proposition 
and  the  other  is  trying  to  prove  another.  Two 
politicians  recently  thought  they  were  debating  a 
proposition  about  local  option  laws,  when  in  reality 
one  argued  in  favor  of  the  proposition,  Local  option 
laws  do  not  yreatly  lessen  the  sales  of  intoxicating 
liquors,  while  the  other  was  arguing  in  favor  of 
the  proposition,  The  sale  of  intoxicating  liquors  is 
the  cause  of  much  immorality.  The  discussion  was 
argumentative,  but  it  was  not  a  debate. 

In  formal  debates  (like  those  in  courts  of  justice, 

in  legislatures,  and  in  debating  societies) 
ThePrin-  L    j  ,  •        n  ,     -       i  • 

cipaiDivi-    eacn  debater  is  allowed  to  speak  in  his 

sionsofthe  turn  without  interruption.  In  such  de- 
Discourse  •.-!«* 

bates,    the    argument,    whether    for    or 

against  the  proposition,  regularly  has  three  prin- 
cipal divisions :  Introduction,  Discussion,  and  Con- 
clusion. 

The  introduction  should  be  expository,  not 
The  Intro-  argumentative.  It  should  explain  frankly 
auction  and  impartially  what  the  proposition  is 
and  what  the  disputed  points  are. 

If  the  exact  meaning  of  certain  words  in  the 
proposition  might  not  be  understood,  the  introduc- 
tion should  explain  their  meaning.  If,  for  instance, 
the  proposition  is,  A  high  protective  tariff  is  injur- 
ious to  our  nation,  the  introduction  might  define 


DEBATING  243 

the  expressions,  tariff,  protective  tariff,  high  protec- 
tive tariff *,  and  nation. 

Sometimes  (as  in  historical  and  political  propo- 
sitions) the  meaning  may  be  made  clear  by  telling 
how  the  disputed  proposition  originated.  For  ex- 
ample, the  disputed  points  in  the  proposition, 
United  States  senators  should  be  elected  by  popular 
vote,  might  be  explained  by  giving  a  brief  history 
of  the  dispute  from  the  time  the  Constitution 
was  framed. 

Sometimes  the  disputed  points  can  be  more  easily 
seen  if  the  debater  simplifies  the  proposition  by 
denying,  in  the  introduction,  other  meanings  that 
the  proposition  might  incorrectly  be  supposed  to 
have.  Suppose  that  the  proposition  reads,  In 
most  cases  the  study  of  manual  training  would  do 
more  than  the  study  of  Latin  to  prepare  high  school 
students  to  earn  a  living.  The  debater  might  say 
in  the  introduction  that  the  proposition  is  not,  that 
manual  training  would  prepare  students  the  better 
to  enjoy  life,  nor  that  it  would  develop  them  the 
more  mentally,  nor  that  it  would  promote  civiliza- 
tion the  more ;  but  that  the  only  proposition  to  be 
considered  is,  In  most  cases  the  study  of  manual 
training  ivouhl  do  more  than  the  study  of  Latin  to 
prepare  high  school  students  to  earn  a  living. 

Of  course,  the  length  of  the  introduction  will  be 
determined  by  the  nature  of  the  proposition.  If 
the  proposition  is  simple  and  easily  understood,  the 


244  DEBATING 

introduction  may  be  but  little  more  than  a  clear 
and  impartial  statement  of  it. 

The  second  part  of  a  debater's  discourse,  called 
the  discussion,  is  argumentative.  In  it  the  debater 
The  Dis-  tries  ^°  prove  that  his  view  of  the  propo- 
cussion  sition  is  the  correct  one.  His  reasons 
should  be  supplemented  by  enough  illustrations 
and  explanations  to  make  them  entirely  clear  to 
the  hearer  or  reader.  Usually  a  debater  tries  not 
only  to  substantiate  his  view  of  the  proposition  but 
also  to  disprove  the  arguments  which  his  opponents 
have  given,  or  are  likely  to  give.  Such  destructive 
argument  is  called  refutation.  Refutation  may  be 
an  important  part  of  a  debate ;  but  a  debater 
should  not  depend  upon  it  alone  :  he  should  give 
also  substantial  reasons  to  confirm  his  opinion  of 
the  proposition. 

The  conclusion  should  be  a  forceful  summary  of 
The  Con-  the  debater's  arguments.  It  should  put 
elusion  the  reasons  for  his  opinion  into  concise, 
easily  remembered  form. 

A  brief  is  an  outline  of  a  debater's  discourse.  It 
helps  the  debater  to  arrange  the  material  in  an 
effective  order  and  to  test  the  validity  of 
the  reasoning.  If  the  student's  debate  is 
to  be  written,  he  should  submit  a  brief  of  his  dis- 
course to  the  teacher  for  criticism  before  he  writes 
the  discussion  in  full. 

The  following  directions  for  the  construction  of 


DEBATING  245 

briefs  should  be  thoroughly  studied  and  carefully 
applied  :  — 

1.  The  title  of  the  brief  should  be  the  proposition 
to  be  proved. 

2.  The  principal  parts  of  the  discourse  should 
be  marked   Introduction,  Discussion,  and    Conclu- 
sion. 

3.  The  outline  of  the  introduction  should  show 
the  principal  divisions  of  the  thought  which  is  to 
be  set  forth  there.     It  should  be  constructed  like 
the  outline  of  exposition  on  page  71. 

4.  All  divisions  of  the  discussion,  whether  prin- 
cipal or  subordinate,  should  be  declarative  sentences, 
not  single  words  or  phrases. 

5 .  The  principal  division  s  of  the  discussion  should 
be   preceded   by  the   italicized  word   because,  and 
each  should  be  so  worded  that  it  will  read  as  a 
reason  for  the  proposition  (the  title). 

6.  The  subordinate   divisions  of  the  discussion 
should  be  preceded  by  the  italicized  word  for,  an4 
each  should  be  so  worded  that  it  will  read  as  a 
reason  for  the  statement  to  which  it  is  subordi- 
nate. 

7.  Sources    of    authority  should    be    given    in 
parentheses. 

8.  The  brief  of  the  conclusion  should  be  a  sum- 
mary of  the  principal  arguments,  followed  by  the 
italicized  word  therefore  and  the  proposition  to  be 
proved  (the  title.) 


246  DEBATING 

Examples :  — 

(Students'  Briefs) 

BRIEF 

Proposition.  —  Ex-Presidents  of  the  United  States  should 
be  senators-at-large  for  life. 

Introduction 

I.   Origin  of  the  question  :  A  feeling  that  the  nation  can 
ill  afford  to  allow  Ex-Presidents  to  retire  to  obscure 
private  life. 
II.    Senators 

A.  How  chosen. 

B.  What    they    represent    (Theoretically,   the    state 

governments  :  practically,  the  people  of  the  vari- 
ous states). 

C.  Importance  of  their  position. 
III.   Senators-at-large  (Definition). 

Discussion 

Ex-Presidents  of  the  United  States  should  be  senators- 
at-large  for  life ;  because 

„  I.    They  have  great  experience  in  the  art  and  science  of 
government ;  for 

A.  While  performing  the   duties   of  President   they 

learn  the  nature  of  the  political,  social,  and 
governmental  conditions  existing  in  the  various 
states. 

B.  While   performing  the  duties   of  President  they 

learn  the  nature  of  political,  social,  and  govern- 
mental conditions  existing  in  other  nations. 
(7.   While  performing   the   duties   of  President  they 
learn   the    nature  of  conditions   existing   in  all 
departments  of  the  national  government. 


BRIEFS  247 

II.   The   presence  of  Ex-Presidents   in  the  senate  would 
help  to  secure   legislation  for  the  benefit  of  the 
entire  nation  rather  than  legislation  for  the  benefit 
of  particular  parts  of  the  nation ;  for 
A.   They  would  hold  their  seats  in  the  senate  as  repre- 
sentatives of  the  entire  nation,  not  as  represen- 
tatives of  any  particular  part  of  the  nation. 
III.   Their  presence  in  the  senate  would  cause   people   to 
have  more  confidence  in  the  senate ;  fo  r 

A.  The  people  would  believe  them  to  be  honest. 

B.  The  people  would  believe  them  to  be  independent, 

and  free  from  the  control  of  wealthy  corporations 
and  political  machines. 

Conclusion 

Ex-Presidents  have  great  experience  in  the  art%  and  science 
of  government.  Their  presence  in  the  senate  would  help  to 
secure  legislation  for  the  benefit  of  the  entire  nation.  Their 
presence  in  the  senate  would  cause  people  to  have  more 
confidence  in  the  senate.  Therefore,  Ex-Presidents  of  the 
United  States  should  be  senators-at-large  for  life. 

BRIEF 

Proposition.  —  Ex-Presidents  should  not  be  made  senators- 
at-large  for  life. 

Introduction 

I.   Senators-at-large  (Definition). 

II.   Origin  of  the  question :  A  belief,  held  by  some,  that 
the  nation  would  be  better  served  if  Ex-Presidents 
were  retained  in  some  department  of  the  govern- 
ment. 
III.   The  Senate. 

A.   How  its  members  are  chosen. 


248  DEBATING 

B.  Why  those  who  framed  the  Constitution  thought 
that  senators  should  be  chosen  as  they  are. 

Discussion 

Ex-Presidents  should  not  be  made  senators-at-large  for 
life  ;  because 
I.   Ex-Presidents  would  benefit  the  nation  more  by  writing 

and  speaking  as  disinterested  private  citizens ;  for 
A.   Being  free  from  the  duties  of  government,  they 
would  have  time  to  study  conditions  in  all  de- 
partments of  the  government. 

B  .  They  would  be  better  able  to  teach  the  people  to 
take  an  interest  in  the  actions  of  the  government 
and  to  demand  good  government ;  since 

1.  The  citizens  would  believe  them  to  be  free 
from  the  political  influences  that  sur- 
round senators. 

II.    Some  Ex-Presidents  might  be  better  qualified  for  ex- 
ecutive or  judicial  service  ;  for 

A.  (Refutation.)  The  argument  that  Ex-Presidents 
should  be  made  senators  because  they  have  great 
experience  in  the  science  of  government  is  not 
good;  for,  they  do  not  necessarily  have  great 
experience  in  legislation,  since 

1.    Presidents  are  primarily  executive  officers. 

III.    The  nature  of  the  senate,  as  it  was  conceived  by  those 

who  wrote  the  Constitution,  would  be  changed ;  /or, 

A.  The  Constitution   provides   that  the  states   shall 

have  an  equal  number  of  citizens  in  the  senate. 

B.  Some  states,  such  as  New  York  and  Ohio,  might 

have  three  or  more  citizens  in  the  senate. 

Conclusion 

Ex-Presidents  would  benefit  the  nation  more  by  writing 
and   speaking   as   disinterested    citizens.     Some   of    them 


TEAM  DEBATING  249 

might  be  better  qualified  for  executive  or  judicial  than  for 
legislative  work.  The  nature  of  the  senate,  as  it  was  con- 
ceived by  those  who  framed  the  Constitution,  would  be 
changed  if  Ex-Presidents  were  made  senators-at-large. 
Therefore,  Ex-Presidents  should  not  be  made  senators-at- 
large  for  life. 

NOTE.  —  Class  room  debates  may  be  either  written  or  oral, 
but  intercollegiate  debates  are  oral.  Usually  the  first  class 
room  debates  should  be  written.  At  first  the  Student 
teacher  may  do  well  to  choose  half  as  many  sub-  Debates 
jects  as  there  are  members  in  the  class,  and  assign  one 
proposition  to  two  students,  asking  one  student  to  write  a 
discussion  for  the  proposition  and  the  other  to  write  a  dis- 
cussion against  it.  Later  the  class  may  be  divided  into  sec- 
tions for  oral  team  debating. 

The  rules  for  team  debating  vary,  and  are  deter- 
mined by  the  contestants  before  the  debate. 
Usually  three  debaters  constitute  the  Team 
team  for  the  affirmative  and  three  for  the  Debating 
negative.  Sometimes  each  debater  is  allowed  to 
make  one  main  speech  and  one  rebuttal  speech,  and 
sometimes  only  one  debater  from  each  team  is 
allowed  to  make  a  rebuttal  speech.  The  time  of  the 
speeches  varies  from  five  to  fifteen  minutes,  accord- 
ing to  the  rules  made  for  the  contest.  Usually  the 
speeches  for  the  affirmative  alternate  with  those 
for  the  negative. 

Much  of  the  success  of  a  debating  team  depends 
upon  the  way  in  which  the  members  Division 
organize  and  divide  the  work.  While  of  Work 
preparing  for  the  debate,  the  members  of  each  team 


250  DEBATING 

should  decide  what  is  to  be  included  in  the  introduc- 
tion and  the  discussion.  Then  they  should  assign 
certain  parts  of  the  work  to  each  member,  so  that 
their  speeches  will  unite  to  form  one  unified,  logical 
discussion. 

The  first  speech  in  a  debate  is  given  by  a  mem- 
ber of  the  team  for  the  affirmative.  He  gives  the 
The  Pres-  introduction  and  perhaps  the  first  part  of 
entation  the  discussion.  The  second  speech  is 
usually  given  by  a  member  of  the  team  for  the 
negative.  His  introduction  may  be  short  unless  he 
wishes  to  disagree  with  statements  made  in  the 
introduction  given  by  his  opponent.  If  he  has 
sufficient  time,  he  may  refute  arguments  advanced 
by  his  opponent,  unless  he  knows  that  his  col- 
leagues will  refute  them  later  in  the  debate.  The 
following  speakers  will  present  the  parts  of  the 
argument  assigned  to  them,  and  if  they  have  time 
and  ability,  will  also  refute  arguments  presented 
by  the  opposition.  Each  of  these  speakers  should 
summarize  the  argument  presented  by  his  team. 

After  the  main  speeches  have  been  given,  each 
team  may  speak  in  rebuttal,  the  negative  usually 
speaking  first.  In  rebuttal,  no  new  argument  may 
be  presented:  the  speaker  may  refute  arguments 
given  by  the  opponents,  and  he  may  summarize  the 
arguments  presented  by  his  team. 


TEAM   DEBATING  251 

Suggested  propositions :  — 

1.  Written  examinations  are  a  fair  basis  for  the  promo- 
tion of  students  in  high  schools. 

2.  The  existence  of  fraternities  in  public  high   schools 
should  be  prohibited  by  a  state  law. 

3.  All  subjects  for  seniors  in  our  school  should  be  elec- 
tive. 

4.  Our  state  should  have  a  high  school  examining  board 
to   examine   all   candidates   for   graduation   in   the   public 
high  schools. 

5.  High  school  students  who  make  a  grade  of  ninety  per 
cent  or  higher  in  their  daily  work  should  be  excused  from 
examinations. 

6.  The  members  of  a  city  school  board  should  be  elected 
by  the  people. 

7.  No  prizes  should  be  offered  in  schools. 

8.  No  person  should  be  allowed  to  vote  in  public  elec- 
tions until  he  has  paid  his  taxes. 

9.  Postmasters  should  be  elected  by  popular  vote. 

10.    Women  should  be  allowed  equal   rights  with  men  to 
vote  in  all  public  elections. 

11.  United  States  senators  should  be  elected  by  popular 
vote. 

12.  As  much  public  money  should  be  paid  for  the  estab- 
lishment and  support  of  trade  schools  as  for  the  establish- 
ment and  support  of  professional  schools. 

13.  The  United  States  should  not  seek  to  gain  possession 
of  extensive  territory  far  distant  from  the  North  American 
continent. 

14.  The  United  States  should  enact  laws  that  would  pre- 
vent the  accumulation  of  immense  fortunes  by  individuals. 

15.  The    United   States    government   should    be    given 
power  to  enact  laws  governing  marriage  and  divorce. 

16.  It  should  be  the  policy  of  our  nation  to  increase  the 
power  of  the  federal  government. 


252  DEBATING 

17.  The  Capital  of  the  United  States  should  be  moved 
farther  west. 

18.  Our  state  university  should  grant  scholarships  to  the 
best  high  school  graduates  of  the  state. 

19.  The  State  Board  of  Education  should  be  authorized 
to  select  textbooks  to  be  used  in  all  high  schools  of  the 
state. 

20.  Capital  punishment  should  be  abolished. 


CHAPTER    XIII 
POETRY 

On  the  basis  of  subject  matter,  discourse  is  divided 
into  description,  narration,  exposition,  and  argumen- 
tation ;  and  on  the  basis  of  structure  and  chief  pur- 
pose, discourse  is  divided  into  prose  and  poetry. 

There  are  many  characteristics  of  structure  and 
purpose  that  help  to  distinguish  poetry  from  prose, 
but  there  is  one  thing  alone  which  must  always  be 
considered  in  deciding  whether  a  piece  of  discourse 
is  poetry  or  prose,  and  that  is  rhythm. 

Poetry  is  discourse  that  has  a  regular  rhythm. 

Prose  is  discourse  that  does  not  have  a  regular 
rhythm. 

In  the  preceding  chapters,  the  purpose  and  char- 
acteristic structure  of  prose  were  discussed.  We 
now  turn  to  a  brief  study  of  the  purpose  and  struc- 
ture of  poetry. 

The  purpose  of  poetry  is  to  give  pleasure  by  an 
appeal  to  the  emotions  through  the  senses,  and  in 
this  it  does  not  differ  from  literary  prose  The 

description,  since  both  seek  to  awaken  the  Purpose 
imagination  and  stir  the  emotions  by  describing 
the  particular  details  of  size,  shape,  color,  odor,  taste, 
sound,  and  feeling. 

253 


254  POETRY 

But  in  addition  to  this  method  shared  with 
poetic  prose,  poetry  produces  pleasure  through  the 
special  means  of  what  may  be  broadly  termed  mu- 
sic, attaining  by  the  use  of  rhythm  and  the  harmo- 
nious combination  of  vowel  arid  consonant  sounds, 
an  effect  akin  to  melody. 

Concrete  subject  matter,  as  we  learned,  appeals 
to  the  emotions  more  than  abstract  subject  matter : 
The  Sub-  hence  it  is  better  adapted  to  poetic  ex- 
ject  Matter  pression.  We  should  not  expect  to  find 
a  geometry  written  in  poetry,  for  the  subject  mat- 
ter is  abstract  and  the  purpose  is  to  instruct  rather 
than  to  give  pleasure. 

Much  of  the  pleasure  derived  from  the  reading 
of  poetry  comes  from  the  diction,  with  its  musical 
The  Die-  sounds  and  word  imagery ;  poetic  diction 
tion  is  essentially  sensuous,  dealing  with  form, 

color,  odor,  sound,  taste,  and  feeling.  Descriptive 
adjectives,  rarely  found  in  prose,  as,  for  instance, 
the  bright-eyed  morn,  white  moonshine,  the  soft,  com- 
plaining flute,  abound,  together  with  a  constant  use 
of  metaphor,  simile,  metonymy,  and  the  various 
other  figures  of  speech. 

Note  the  use  of  concrete,  sensuous  diction  in  the 
following,  especially  in  the  second  stanza :  — 

"Down  dropt  the  breeze,  the  sails  dropt  down, 
'Twas  sad  as  sad  could  be, ; 
And  we  did  speak  only  to  break 
The  silence  of  the  sea  ! 


POETRY  255 

All  in  a  hot  and  copper  sky 
The  bloody  sun,  at  noon, 
Right  up  above  the  mast  did  stand, 
No  bigger  than  the  moon." l 

Much  of  the  musical  quality  of  poetic  diction  is 
dependent  upon  repetition  and  accentuation  of 
sound.  In  the  first  verse  of  the  stanza  just  quoted 
there  is  a  repetition  of  the  sound  d ;  and  in  the 
second  verse,  a  repetition  of  the  sound  s.  The 
repetition  of  sounds  frequently  occurs  at  the  end 
of  verses  ;  for  example,  the  word  sea  repeats  the 
sound  of  the  word  be;  and  the  word  moon  repeats 
the  sound  of  the  word  noon.  Much  also  of  the 
music  of  poetic  diction  arises  from  a  harmony  of 
the  accented  vowel  sounds.  The  accented  vowels 
of  the  second  stanza  are  a,  o,  o,  y ;  u,  u,  oo ;  u,  u, 
a,  a\  i,  a,  oo.  These  sounds  unite  harmoniously, 
and  would  please  the  ear  if  sounded  in  sequence 
upon  a  musical  instrument.  Note  the  musical 
quality  of  the  vowel  sounds  in  the  following  verses: 

"  Magic  casements  opening  on  the  foam 
Of  perilous  seas  in  fairy  lands  forlorn." 

Finally,  it  is  to  be  noted  that  some  words  are 
appropriate  in  poetry  but  not  in  prose ;  note,  for 
instance,  the  following  words  which  belong  dis- 
tinctly to  the  realm  of  poetry  :  morn,  eve,  dale,  vale, 
rill,  damsel,  lass,  ere,  oft,  'neath,  o'er. 

1  Samuel  Taylor  Coleridge,  The  Rime  of  the  Ancient  Mariner. 


256  POETRY 

VERSE  STRUCTURE 

A  line  of  poetry  is  called  a  verse. 

The  two  most  important  details  of  verse  struc- 
ture are  rhythm  and  meter. 

Poetic  rhythm  is  the  regular  recurrence  of 
stressed  syllables.  The  regularly  recurring  stress, 
Poetic  like  the  heavy  beat  of  a  drum  in  music, 
Rhythm  marks  the  time  of  the  poem.  If  we  pro- 
nounce the  word  double,we  place  the  heavy  accent,  or 
stress,  on  the  first  syllable.  If  we  recite  the  verse, 
"  Double,  double,  toil  and  trouble,"  the  heavily  ac- 
cented syllables  come  at  regular  intervals,  like  the 
heavy  beats  of  a  drum,  and  we  have  poetic 
rhythm. 

Different  kinds  of  poetic  rhythm  are  made  by 
different  alternations  of  the  lightly  accented  sylla- 
bles with  those  which  are  heavily  accented.  A 
rhythmic  unit,  called  a  foot,  consists  of  a  heavily 
accented  syllable  and  the  lightly  accented  syllable 
or  syllables  accompanying  it.  The  four  common 
kinds  of  poetic  feet  are  called  iambus,  ariapwst, 
trochee,  dactyl. 

An  iambic  foot  consists  of  one  lightly  accented 
syllable  followed  by  a  heavily  accented  syllable; 
for  example :  — 

W     W          W  W        y  

"  The  curfew  tolls  the  knell  of  parting  day." 

The  iambic  is  more  used  than  any  other  kind  of 
poetic  rhythm. 


VERSE   STRUCTURE  257 

An  anapcestic  foot  consists  of  two  lightly  ac- 
cented syllables  followed  by  a  heavily  accented 
syllable  ;  for  example  :  — 

W  W       —       W  W      W          W  WW     

"  At  the  dead  of  the  night  a  sweet  vision  I  saw." 

A  trochaic  foot  consists  of  one  heavily  accented 
syllable  followed  by  a  lightly  accented  syllable ;  for 
example :  — 


"  Holy,  holy,  holy  ;  merciful  and  mighty." 

A  dactylic,  foot  consists  of  a  heavily  accented 
syllable  followed  by  two  lightly  accented  syllables ; 
for  example :  - 

"  Cannon  to  right  of  them." 

_          \j  \^/  a \^/     \j 

"  When  can  their  glory  fade  ?  " 

When  we  read  a  verse  or  two  of  a  poem  we  de- 
tect the  rhythm  and  expect  the  heavy  beat  of  the 
stressed  syllables  to  come  as  regularly  as  the  heavy 
beat  of  the  drum  in  a  piece  of  music ;  however  we 
should  not  consider  the  poem  defective  when  the 
number  or  arrangement  of  the  lightly  accented 
syllables  varies  occasionally,  if  the  heavy  stress  al- 
ways remains  regular.  Both  poet  and  drummer 
may  give  variety  to  the  music  by  substituting  two 
light  beats  for  one,  or  one  light  beat  for  two,  or 
even  a  heavy  beat  for  a  light  one,  so  long  as  the 
accent  of  the  heavy  beat  does  not  vary.  Indeed, 
the  poet,  like  the  drummer,  may  change  the.  time 


258  POETRY 

of  the  heavy  beat  by  changing  from  one  rhythm 
to  another ;  though  such  a  change  would  alter  the 
movement  of  the  verse  and  require  the  reader  to 
accustom  himself  to  the  new  accent. 

What  is  said  above  about  rhythm  is  not  in- 
tended to  be  a  complete  discussion  of  the  subject. 
There  are  many  details  of  rhythmic  structure  that 
have  not  been  mentioned.  The  student  can  dis- 
cover many  of  these  by  reading  poetry,  and  he  can 
learn  the  theories  of  rhythmic  structure  by  study- 
ing a  textbook  on  poetics. 

The  word  meter  means  measure.  Since  the  unit 
of  measure  in  poetry  is  the  foot,  the  meter  of  a 

poetic  line  is  determined  by  the  number 
Meter 

of  feet  that  it  contains ;  and  according  to 

the  number  of  its  feet  is  called  monometer,  dimeter, 
trimeter,  tetrameter,  pentameter,  hexameter,  hep- 
tameter,  or  octometer.  Thus  a  verse  of  three  feet  is 
in  trimeter,  and  one  of  five  feet  is  in  pentameter. 
The  verse,  "  Double,  double,  toil  and  trouble,"  is  in 
trochaic  tetrameter ;  and  the  verse,  "  Then  went 
Sir  Bedivere  the  second  time,"  is  in  iambic  pentam- 
eter. 

Scanning  poetry  is  indicating  the  exact  nature 

of  the  rhythm  and  meter.     In  oral  scansion  this 

may  be  done  by  giving  especial  stress  to 

the   heavily    accented   syllables ;    and  in 

written  scansion  it  may  be  done  by  marking  the 

syllables.     Sometimes  only   the   heavily  accented 


VERSE   STRUCTURE  259 

syllables  are  marked,  but  usually  all  syllables  are 
marked.  The  following  is  the  usual  method  of 
written  scansion :  — 

\^/          \_/     V>  

"  Down  dropt  the  breez/,  the  sails  dropt  down, 

w     w      w  

'Twas  sad  as  sad  could  be ; 

w        —  y        —    ww     — 

And  we  did  speak  only  to  break 

The  sllenc/ of  the  sea." 

Often  there  is  a  natural  pause,  or  caesura,  in  the 
rhythm.  This  pause  may  occur  in  the  middle  of  a 
foot  or  between  the  feet.  By  occurring  verse- 
first  in  one  part  of  a  verse  and  then  in  Pause,  or 
another,  the  caesura  may  give  variety 
and  charm  to  the  structure  and  prevent  the  rhythm 
from  becoming  monotonous.  The  caesural  pause 
is  especially  effective  in  blank  verse  and  in  verse  of 
many  feet.  It  may  be  indicated  by  a  bar  between 
the  syllables  ;  thus :  — 

"  0  Prince,  |  0  chief  |  of  many  throned  Powers, 
That  led  th'  imbattell'd  Seraphim  |  to  war 
Under  thy  conduct,  |  and,  |  in  dreadful  deeds 
Fearless,  |  endangered  heav'n's  perpetual  King, 
And  put  to  proof  |  his  high  supremacy." 

Rhyme  is  a  similarity  in  the  sound  of  syllables 
that  are  similarly  placed  in  a  poem.  The  rhymed 
syllables  may  be  in  one  verse ;  as,  for  Rhyme 
example,  in  "  The  splendor  falls  on  castle  walls "  ; 
but  usually  the  expression,  "rhymed  poetry." 


260  POETRY 

means  that  the  rhymed  syllables  are  the  last 
syllables  of  two  or  more  verses  that  are  near 
together  in  a  poem. 

Three  laws  govern  the  construction  of  rhymes : 

1.  The   vowel  sounds  of  the  rhymed  syllables 
should  be  the   same ;  for  example,  flows  rhymes 
with  goes,  but  not  with  does. 

2 .  If  consonant  sounds  follow  the  rhymed  vowel 
sound,  they  should  be  the  same. 

3.  The   consonant  sounds  preceding  the  rhymed 
vowel  sounds  should  not  be  the  same. 

The  first  of  these  laws  is  not  always  strictly  ob- 
served. The  number  of  words  in  our  language 
that  rhyme  exactly  is  not  so  great  as  the  poets 
might  wish ;  therefore  vowel  sounds  that  are 
similar,  but  not  exactly  the  same,  are  often 
rhymed.  The  words  goes  and  does  may  form  "  an 
allowable  rhyme,"  although  the  harmony  is  not 
perfect. 

It  is  to  be  noted  that  rhymes  may  be  double  or 
even  triple ;  that  is,  two  or  three  syllables  of  one 
verse  may  rhyme  with  two  or  three  syllables  of 
another;  for  example,  dying  and  flying,  tenderly 
and  slenderly. 

Blank  verse  is  verse  that  does  not  make 

Blank 

Verse          use  ot  rhyme. 

Alliteration  is  the  repetition  of  a  sound 

Alliteration   ,  f  , 

by  the  first  letters  of  two  or  more  words 
in  a  verse ;  for  example :  — 


.VERSE   STRUCTURE  261 

"  O  wind,  O  wingless  wind  that  walk'st  the  sea, 
Weak  wind,  wing-broken,  wearier  wind  than  we, 
Who  are  yet  not  spirit-broken." 

In  early  English  poetry,  alliteration  was  a 
regular  form  of  rhyme,  but  in  modern  verse  it  is 
used  irregularly  and  incidentally,  and  is  to  be  con- 
sidered a  poetic  device  for  securing  musical  effect, 
and  not  a  form  of  rhyme. 

Many  poems  are  divided  into  groups  of  two  or 
more  verses,  called  stanzas.     Usually  all  the  stanzas 
of    a    poem   are    constructed   after    one 
pattern  :  all  contain  the  same  number  of 
verses  and  the  same  kind,  and  these  verses  are 
similarly  arranged  and  rhymed.     Many  different 
stanza  forms  are  used,  but  only  the  most  common 
need  be  mentioned  here. 

A  couplet  is  a  stanza  of  two  rhymed  verses.  A 
triplet  is  a  stanza  of  three  rhymed  verses.  A 
quatrain  is  a  stanza  of  four  verses.  The  student 
can  find  quatrains  of  many  different  kinds.  The 
Spenserian  stanza  is  a  stanza  of  nine  iambic  verses, 
the  first  eight  of  which  are  pentameter  and  the 
last  hexameter.  The  student  can  learn  the  rhyme 
of  the  Spenserian  stanza  by  examining  a  stanza  of 
the  Faerie  Queene. 

The  sonnet  is  a  stanza  form  that  deserves  special 
study.  It  consists  of  fourteen  verses  of  iambic  pen- 
tameter. The  first  eight  verses  are  called  the  major 
division  and  the  last  six  verses  are  called  the  minor 


262  POETRY 

division.  The  major  division  usually  introduces 
the  thought  of  the  sonnet.  The  rhyme  form  varies 
greatly.  The  following  sonnet  by  Milton  illustrates 
a  rhyme  scheme  much  used  in  sonnets. 

ON   HIS    BLINDNESS 

When  I  consider  how  my  light  is  spent 

Ere  half  my  days,  in  this  dark  world  and  wide, 

And  that  one  talent  which  is  death  to  hide 

Lodged  with  me  useless,  though  my  soul  more  bent 

To  serve  therewith  my  Maker,  and  present 

My  true  account,  lest  He  returning  chide,  — 

"  Doth  God  exact  day -labor,  light  denied  ?  " 

I  fondly  ask  :  —  But  Patience,  to  prevent 

That  murmur,  soon  replies,  "  God  doth  not  need 

Either  man's  work,  or  His  own  gifts  :  who  best 

Bear  His  mild  yoke,  they  serve  Him  best :  His  state 

Is  kingly  ;  thousands  at  His  bidding  speed 

And  post  o'er  land  and  ocean  without  rest :  — 

They  also  serve  who  only  stand  and  wait." 


PART  III 
GRAMMAR,  RHETORIC,  AND  DICTION 


RULES    IN    GRAMMAR    AND    DICTION 

CAPITALIZATION 

No  detail  of  form  perplexes  publishers  more  at 
present  than  does  capitalization.  The  tendency  is 
to  use  fewer  capitals  than  formerly,  but  publishers 
are  not  agreed  regarding  the  capitalization  of  many 
constructions.  Some  definite  rules  will  be  given, 
in  regard  to  which  there  is  little  or  no  disagreement ; 
and  the  student's  attention  will  be  called  to  some 
usages  regarding  which  there  is  disagreement. 

First  Words 

1.    Use  a  capital  letter  at  the  bee/inning  of 

a.  Every  sentence. 

b.  Every  line  of  poetry. 

c.  Every  direct  quotation,  except  partial  quota- 
tions from  which  the  first  part  of  the  sentence  is 
omitted,  as  in  the  following :  - 

He  asked,  "  Why  are  you  here  ?  " 

Let  us,  too,  hope  for  rest  when  we  have  "  crost  the  bar." 

d.  Every  resolution,  toast,  or  similar  expression 
formally  introduced. 

Examples :  — 

Resolved,  That  more  attention  should  be  given  to  the 
study  of  composition. 

My  Country  :  May  she  be  ever  right. 

265 


266  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (j-j 

e.    Every  member  of  a  series  of  sentences. 

Example :  — 

We  may  now  ask,  Who  was  Henry  Clay  ?  What  was 
his  life  work  ?  and,  What  will  be  his  influence  upon  govern- 
ment in  the  future  ? 

•/.  Every  member  of  a  series  of  expressions  that 
are  separately  paragraphed.  This  discussion  of  the 
punctuation  of  "  First  Words  "  is  an  example. 

Proper  Names 

2.  Capitalize :  — 

a.  Proper   names ;     e.g.     George     Washington, 
Ohio. 

b.  Divine  names  ;  e.g.  God,  Saviour,  Providence. 

c.  Pronouns  referring  to  Divinity ;  e.g.  He,  Thy. 

d.  Adjectives  derived    from    proper    names    of 
places  and  persons,  unless  much  use  has  caused 
them  to   lose  the  association ;  e.g.  French,  Spen- 
serian, arabesque. 

The  General  Term  with  Proper  Names 

3.  Such  general  words  as  river,  street,  county, 
and  school,  when  used  with  the  names  of  particular 
places  or  things,  have  usually  been  considered  a 
part  of  the  proper  names,  and  have  been  capitalized 
as  such;  e.g.  Ohio  River,  Elm  Street.     At  present 
many  reputable  publishers  consider  such  words  to 
be  common,  or  class,  nouns,  and  do  not  capitalize 
them ;  e.g.  Ohio  river,  Elm  street.     It  is  possible 


j,  4)  CAPITALIZATION  267 

that  at  some  time  the  latter  method  of  capitalization 
will  be  generally  adopted,  but  at  present  it  is  better 
to  capitalize  these  general  terms  when  they  are  used 
with  the  names  of  particular  places. 

When  such  general  words  are  not  used  with  the 
names  of  particular  places  they  should  not  be  cap- 
italized ;  e.g.  the  Ohio  and  Mississippi  rivers ;  The 
street  on  which  we  live. 

The  capitalization  of  the  following  expressions 
should  be  studied  carefully. 

The  Salem  High  School.  The  high  school  in  Salem. 

The  University  of  Chicago.  The  university  which  I  at- 
tended. 

The  Columbia  River.  The  rivers  of  our  state. 

The  Appalachian  Mountains.  We  saw  the  mountains. 

The  Standard  Oil  Company.  The  company  which  he  or- 
ganized. 

New  York  State.  The  Southern  states. 

The  Pennsylvania  Railroad.  The  railroads  of  Ohio. 

The  First  National  Bank.  The  bank  in  which  he  works. 

The  Grand  Opera  House.  We  went  to  the  opera  house. 

The  Clinton  Board  of  Edu-  He  appointed  a  board  of 

cation.  education. 

The  Boston  Baseball  Club.  They  formed  a  baseball  club. 

Titles 
4.    Capitalize:  — 

a.  Titles  of  respect,  office,  and  position  when  they 
are  used  in  connection  with  a  person's  name  ;  e.g. 

Mr.  Brown,  Captain  Smith,  Professor  Clark,  Professor 
C.  H.  Clark,  The  President  of  Dwight  College. 


268  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (4,  5 

6.    Initial  letters  and  abbreviations  of  titles  and 
of  college  degrees;  e.g. 

Mr.  C.  H.  Clark,  A.M.,  Ph.D. 

c.  Titles  standing  alone  when  they  denote  offices 
of  high  rank.     Other  titles  standing  alone  are  not 
capitalized  by  most  publishers.     Examine  the  fol- 
lowing examples : 

The  President  of  the  United  The  president  of  the  bank. 

States.  The    vice-president    of    the 
The  Vice-President  (U.S.).  society. 

The  Governor.  The  principal  of  the  school. 

The  Congressman.  He  was  a  congressman. 

The  Pope.  The  postmaster. 

d.  The  principal  words  in  the  title  of  a  book, 
poem,  or  sermon;  e.g.  Th,e  Mill  on  the  Floss.     A 
few  publishers  now  capitalize  only  the  first  word 
of  the  title. 

Other  Usages 

5.    Capitalize:  — 

a.  The   names   of   the  days  of  the   week,   the 
names  of   the  months,  and   the  names  of  special 
days,  such  as  holidays,  but  not  the  names  of  the 
seasons;  e.g. 

Friday.  Commencement  Day. 

January.  spring. 

Thanksgiving  Day.  autumn. 

b.  The   names  of  strongly  personified   objects ; 
e.g. 

"  The  pruning-knife  of  Time  cut  him  down." 


5)  PUNCTUATION  269 

c.  The  words  Bible,  Scriptures*  Book  of  Job,  etc., 
but  not  the  adjectives  biblical,  scriptural,  divine,  etc. 

d.  The  words  North,  Northwest,  etc.,  when  they 
mean  a  part  of  the  country,  but  do  not  capitalize 
them  when  they  mean  a  direction ;  e.g. 

He  lives  in  the  South. 
He  went  south. 

e.  The  pronoun  /  and  the  interjection  Of     The 
word  oh  is  not  usually  capitalized  unless  it  is  the 
first  word  in  a  sentence. 

/.  The  names  of  subjects  of  study  that  are  de- 
rived from  proper  names.  Those  not  so  derived  are 
not  usually  capitalized  ;  e.g. 

German,  Latin.  arithmetic,  composition. 

PUNCTUATION  l 

Punctuation  is  valuable  as  an  aid  to  the  reader 
in  grouping  printed  and  written  words.  For  ex- 
ample, punctuation  shows  where  sentences  end  and 
where  modifiers  belong.  More  punctuation  was 
used  fifty  years  ago  than  at  the  present  day.  Un- 
less a  mark  of  punctuation  will  really  help  to  make 
the  meaning  of  a  sentence  clear,  it  should  not  be 
used. 

No  complete  set  of  rules  for  the  use  of  punctua- 
tion marks  can  be  given.  Good  judgment  must 
decide  whether  or  not  a  mark  is  necessary  to  make 

1For  the  punctuation  of  letters,  see  p.  150  ff. 


270  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (5-7 

the  meaning  of  a  sentence  clear:  judgment,  too, 
must  decide  what  mark  should  be  used. 

The  four  common  marks  of  punctuation,  in  the 
order  of  their  punctuation  value,  are  :  the  period, 
the  colon,  the  semicolon,  and  the  comma.  The 
period  is  the  mark  of  greatest  punctuation  value. 
The  comma,  though  having  the  least  punctuation 
value,  is  the  mark  most  used  and  most  misused,  and 
the  student  is  cautioned  against  the  careless  use 
of  it. 

The  following  general  principles  of  punctuation 
should  be  thoroughly  learned  and  carefully  applied. 

The  Period 

6.  The  period  should  be  used  after  declarative 
and  imperative  sentences,  after  abbreviations   and 
initial  letters,  and  after  roman  and  arabic  numerals 
used  to  number  the  divisions  of  an  outline  or  compo- 
sition.    It  may  or  may  not  be  used  after  the  title 
of  a  book,  sermon,  program,  etc.     For  instance  :  — - 

Mr.  C.  H.  Smith,  Litt.D.,  LL.D.,  has  gone  to  Washing- 
ton D.CV  to  attend  a  class  reunion. 

Punctuation  in  a  Compound  Sentence 

7.  Good   judgment  must   help   the  student   to 
decide  whether  to  use  the  comma,  the  semicolon, 
the  colon,  or  no  mark  of  punctuation  between  the 
members  of  a  compound   sentence.     Four  things 
are  to  be  considered:  (1)  Length  of  the  members; 


7)  PUNCTUATION  271 

(2)  Presence  or  absence  of  a  conjunction;  (3)  Punc- 
tuation within  the  members;  (4)  Closeness  of  the 
relation  between  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the  mem- 
bers. 

a.  If  the  members  are  short,  the    conjunction 
present,  and  the  rela-tion  close  between  the  thoughts 
expressed,  usually  no  mark  is  needed  between  the 
members. 

Thus :  — 

I  went  to  the  place  and  found  the  book. 

b.  If  the  members  are  long,  the  conjunction  ab- 
sent, or  the  relation  remote  between  the  thoughts 
expressed,  punctuation  is  needed  between  the  mem- 
bers.    The  comma  usually  is  needed  when  so  is 
used  as  a  conjunction. 

Examples :  — 

Grand  and  noble  thoughts  inspired  the  early  martyrs  to 
face  punishment  and  death,  but  grander  and  nobler  thoughts 
now  impel  the  minds  of  religious  reformers  to  convert  the 
world. 

Our  train  moved  slowly  until  we  were  out  of  the  city  ; 
then  it  began  to  move  more  rapidly. 

The  faint  outline  of  the  moon  was  seen,  but  little  light 
could  penetrate  the  thick  clouds. 

c.  If  there  is  punctuation  within  one  or  both  of 
the  members,  some  punctuation  is  usually  necessary 
between   the   members.      Judgment   must    decide 
whether   a   comma,   a   semicolon,   or   a    colon    is 
necessary. 


272  RULES   IN   GRAMMAR  (7,  8 

Examples :  — 

He  looked  up  quickly,  confusedly,  at  her  with  a  refusal 
on  his  lips  ;  but  she  had  already  turned  away  to  put  things 
in  readiness. 

d.  When  such  conjunctions  as  therefore,  other- 
wise, however,  moreover,  and  consequently  are  used, 
the  relation  between  the  thoughts  expressed  by  the 
members  is  often  sufficiently  remote  to  require  a 
semicolon  between  them. 

Example :  — 

Three  times  he  had  failed  to  do  the  work  in  a  satisfac- 
tory manner ;  consequently  he  was  asked  to  resign. 

Special  Constructions 

8.  Often  a  comma  is  necessary  between  clauses 
to  make  the  meaning  clear. 

a.  Often  a  comma  is   necessary  to    prevent   a 
clause  from  seeming  to  be  coordinate  with  a  pre- 
ceding word. 

Example :  — 

Prom  all  around  came  the  croaking  of  frogs,  and  the 
rushing  of  water  in  the  rapids  below  could  be  heard 
distinctly. 

b.  A  comma  is  usually  required  before  the  con- 
junction/or to  distinguish  it  from  the  preposition 
for. 

Examples :  — 

She  did  not  punish  him,  for  his  punishment  had  been 
great  enough. 

She  rewarded  them  for  their  bravery. 


p,  10)  PUNCTUATION  273 

Expressions  out  of  the  Natural  Position 

9.  A  word,  phrase,  or  clause  out  of  its  natural 
position  in  the  sentence  should  be  set  off  by  the 
comma  when  such  punctuation  will  help  to   make 
the  meaning  clear.    The  natural  order  in  the  English 
sentence    is    adjective,   noun,    verb,    adverb.     The 
modifier  should  be  close  to  the  word  it  modifies. 

a.  An  adverbial  clause  out  of  its  natural  posi- 
tion in  the  sentence  should  be  set  off  by  commas  if 
the  clause  ends  in  a  verb  or  preposition  that,  with- 
out  such   punctuation,    might   seem   to    take    an 
object. 

Examples :  — 

When  I  swung,  the  swing  went  higher  than  the  arbor. 

As  they  looked  longingly  at  the  river  flowing  lazily  by, 
the  cane  patch  seemed  to  present  to  them  a  never  ending 
task. 

b.  An  adjective  modifier  usually  should  be  set 
off  by  commas  when  it  follows  the  word  it  modifies. 

Example :  — 

The  hoisting-shaft,  tall  and  grim,  stood  outlined  against 
the  sky. 

c.  A  principal  clause  should  be  set  off  by  the 
comma  when  it  breaks  up  a  subordinate  clause. 

Example :  — 

There  are  reasons,  I  think,  why  this  should  be  done. 

Adjective  Modifiers 

10.  A   descriptive,    or   non-restrictive,   adjective 
phrase  or  clause  usually  should  be  set  off  by  the 


274  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (10,  II 

comma.  A  limiting,  or  restrictive,  adjective  phrase 
or  clause  usually  should  not  be  set  off  by  the 
comma. 

This  is  a  very  important  rule,  for  the  punctuation 
of  an  adjective  clause  often  determines  the  mean- 
ing of  a  sentence. 

a.  The  chief  purpose  of  a  descriptive  adjective 
modifier  is  to  call  attention  to  a  characteristic. 

Example :  — 

My  father,  who  often  helps  me,  was  not  present. 

b.  The  chief   purpose   of   a   limiting   adjective 
modifier  is  to  restrict  the  meaning  of  the  word  that 
it  modifies. 

Example :  — 

The  man  who  stole  my  purse  was  caught. 

A  Series  of  Expressions 

11.  The  members  of  a  series  of  expressions  used  in 
the  same  construction  and  not  all  connected  by  con- 
junctions are  usually  separated  by  the  comma. 

a.    Though  a  conjunction  is  used  between  the 
last  two   terms,   the  best  usage  requires   that 
comma  also  should  be  used. 

Example :  — 

The  windows  were  long,  narrow,  and  pointed. 

I.  When  adjectives  not  in  the  same  construction 
are  used  together,  they  should  not  be  punctuated 
as  though  they  were  a  series  in  the  same  construe- 


II,  12)  PUNCTUATION  275 

tion.  In  the  sentence,  Six  little  peach  trees  grew  on 
the  lawn,  the  words  six,  little,  and  peach  are  not  in 
the  same  construction.  The  word  six  is  a  limiting 
adjective  modifier;  the  word  little  is  a  descrip- 
tive adjective  modifier ;  and  the  word  peach  is  a 
part  of  the  substantive  expression  peach  trees. 

c.  If  all  of  the  members  of  a  series  are  connected 
by  conjunctions,  the  comma  usually  is  not  necessary. 

Example :  — 

The  apple  was  red  and  ripe  and  round. 

d.  If  the  members  of  a  series  are  long,  or  if  there 
is  punctuation  within  the  members,  the  semicolon 
may  be  used  between  the  members. 

Example :  — 

The  following  sentence  plots  are  suggested:  I  baked 
some  bread,  but  brother  did  not  like  it ;  We  ran  away  from 
home,  but  returned  repentant. 

e.  If  the  members  of  a  series  of  expressions  are 
arranged  in  pairs,  the  pairs  of  expressions  usually 
should  be  separated  by  the  comma. 

Example :  — 

The  man  was  young  and  enthusiastic,  cautious  and  self- 
reliant,  patient  and  persevering. 

Before  a  Series  of  Expressions 

12.  Usually  no  mark  of  punctuation  should  be 
placed  before  a  series  of  expressions  used  in  the 
same  construction  unless  the  series  is  formally 
introduced. 


276  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (12,  JJ 

Example :  — 

In  the  country  store  we  found  groceries,  dry  goods,  hard- 
ware, and  miscellaneous  articles. 

a.  If  such  an  expression  as  namely,  viz.,  i.e.,  or 
e.g.  precedes  the  series,  the  expression  should  be 
preceded  by  a  semicolon. 

Example :  — 

The  country  store  contained  a  variety  of  articles;  e.g. 
groceries,  dry  goods,  hardware,  fishing  tackle  and  crockery. 

b.  If  the  attention  of  the  reader  has  been  di- 
rected forward  to  the  series  by  a  formal  expression, 
like  as  follows,  these  terms,  etc.,  the  series  should 
be  preceded  by  a  colon. 

Example :  — 

We  found  the  following  articles  in  the  country  store : 
groceries,  dry  goods,  hardware,  fishing  tackle  and  crockery. 

Introductory  and  Absolute  Construction 

13.  Introductory  expressions  and  phrases  in  the 
absolute  construction  should  be  set  off  by  the 
comma. 

Examples :  — 

Now,  there  is  another  reason. 

The  performance  being  ended,  we  went  home. 

a.  The  words  yes  and  no  when  used  as  a  part  of 
an  answer  to  a  question  should  be  followed  by  a 
comma. 

Example :  — 

Yes,  he  was  present. 


/4)  PUNCTUATION  277 

Parenthetical  Expressions 

14.  A  parenthetical  expression  used  as  a  part  of 
a  sentence  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma. 

A  parenthetical  expression  in  a  sentence  is  a 
word  or  group  of  words  inserted  in  the  sentence 
for  the  purpose  of  explanation,  illustration,  or  com- 
ment, or  for  some  similar  purpose.  It  is  not 
necessary  to  the  grammatical  structure  of  the  sen- 
tence. 

Examples :  — 

He  was  shrewd,  too,  and  courageous. 

This  man,  as  I  said  before,  was  not  rich. 

a.  The  comma  should  be  used  to  set  off  an  ad- 
verbial expression  if  its  position  in  the  sentence  is 
unusual  or  the  idea  which  it  expresses  seems  re- 
mote from  the  thought  of  the  sentence. 

Example :  — 

This  fact,  if  we  accept  his  statement,  deserves  further 
consideration. 

b.  Marks  of  parenthesis  are  sometimes  used  to 
inclose  a  parenthetical  expression  which  does  not 
unite  readily  with  the  rest  of  the  sentence. 

Example :  — 

This  book  (written  in  1756)  was  a  great  addition  to  con- 
temporary literature.  • 

c.  Brackets  should  be  used  in  quotations  to  in- 
close parenthetical  comments  inserted  by  the  one 
who  quotes. 


278  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (l4~I? 

Example :  — 

At  present  the  individual  man  has  to  carry  on  his  life 
with  due  regard  to  the  lives  of  others  belonging  to  the 
same  society  [the  one  of  which  he  is  a  part]. 

—  HERBERT  SPENCER. 

Ellipsis 

15.  An  ellipsis  of  words  is  usually  indicated  by 
a  comma. 

Example :  — 

I  chose  the  yellow ;  she,  the  green. 

a.  The  omission  of  a  letter  or  of  letters  in  a 
word  should  be  indicated  by  an  apostrophe ;  e.g. 
He's,  o'er. 

Expressions  in  Apposition 

16.  An  appositive  expression,  with  or  without  the 
conjunction  or,  should  be  set  off  by  the  comma. 

An  appositive  expression  repeats,  in  other  words, 
an  idea  that  has  been  expressed. 

Examples :  — 

June,  the  month  of  birds  and  flowers,  is  the  best  month 
of  the  year. 

A  descriptive,  or  non-restrictive,  adjective  clause. 

Direct  Address 

% 

17.  Words  used  in  direct  address  should  be  set 
off  by  the  comma. 

Example :  — 

Mother,  why  must  I  go  ? 


l8)  PUNCTUATION  279 

Direct  Quotation 

18.  A  direct  quotation  should  be  inclosed  in  quo- 
tation marks,  and  it  should  be  capitalized  and  punc- 
tuated exactly  as  it  is  in  the  original.  Periods  and 
commas  following  quotations  should  be  placed  within 
the  quotation  marks ;  semicolons  and  colons,  outside. 

a.  There  is  an  exception  to  this  rule.     A  de- 
clarative or  an  imperative  sentence  which  is  quoted 
as  a  part  of  a  larger  sentence  should  not  be  followed 
by  a  period  except  when  it  is  quoted  at  the  end  of 
a  declarative  or  an  imperative  sentence. 

Examples :  — 

"  I  will  teach  her  at  home,"  said  Aunt  Louise. 

Mary  replied,  "  It  is  very  difficult." 

b.  When  an  interrogative  or  exclamatory  quota- 
tion is  used  as  a  part  of  a  sentence,  the  interroga- 
tion  point   or   the  exclamation   point    should    be 
placed  within  the   quotation   marks.     If  the   en- 
tire sentence  (which  contains  the  quotation)  is  in- 
terrogative or  exclamatory,  the  mark  should  be 
placed  outside  the  quotation  marks.     A  comma  or 
a  period  should  never  be  used  in  addition  to  the 
interrogation  or  exclamation  point. 

Examples :  — 

"  What  have  I  done?  "  he  asked. 

Did  he  say,  "  I  am  guilty  "  ? 

c.  If  a  quotation  is  divided  by  intervening  words, 
each  part  of  the  quotation  should  be  inclosed  in 
quotation  marks,  and  the  intervening  words  should 


280  RULES  IN   GRAMMAR 

be  set  off  by  the  comma.  The  second  part  of  a  di- 
vided quotation  should  not  begin  with  a  capital 
unless  it  is  a  quoted  sentence. 

Examples :  — 

"  The  work,"  he  replied,  "  will  be  carefully  done." 
"The  man  is  from  Boston,"  said  Charles.     "He  came 
last  evening." 

d.  A  quotation  within  a  quotation  should  be 
inclosed  in  single  quotation  marks. 

Example :  — 

The  witness  said,  "  The  accused  man  said,  '  I  took  the 
money.' " 

e.  If  a  quotation  follows  such  an  informal  ex- 
pression as  he  said  or  he  replied,  it  should  be  pre- 
ceded by  a  comma;  but  if  it  follows  such  a  formal 
expression  as  he  spoke  as  follows  or  the  announce- 
ment ivas,  it  should  be  preceded  by  a  colon  or  a 
semicolon. 

Examples :  — 

"  That  sounds  more  natural,"  said  Uncle  Charley. 
His  words  were  these :  "  We  wish  to  express  our  ap- 
preciation." 

/.  When  verse  is  quoted  in  prose  discourse  it 
should  be  lined  as  it  is  in  the  original  form,  and  it 
should  not  be  written  on  a  line  with  the  prose. 
The  lines  should  begin  to  the  right  of  the  margin. 
If  the  prose  that  follows  the  verse  is  a  part  of  the 
paragraph,  it  should  begin  at  the  margin. 


l8,  ip)  PUNCTUATION  281 

Example :  — 

Sir   Bedivere,   dazzled  by   the   wondrous   jeweled   hilt, 
hesitated, 

"  This  way  and  that  dividing  the  swift  mind, 

In  act  to  throw  "  ; 

but  finally,  summoning  his  resolution,  he  threw  the  sword, 
Excalibur. 

Exclamatory  Expressions 

19.    Complete  exclamatory  expressions  should  be 
followed  by  the  exclamation  point. 

Examples :  — 

How  wonderful  is  man ! 

"  The  day  has  come ! "  he  cried. 

a.  When   an    interjection    or    an    exclamatory 
phrase  is  considered  to  be  a  complete  exclamation, 
it  should  be  followed  by  an  exclamatioij  point. 

Examples :  — 

What  a  surprise !  the  room  was  vacant ! 
Listen !  some  one  is  coming. 

b.  If  an  interjection  unites  with  the  rest  of  a 
phrase  or  sentence  to  express  a  single  feeling  or 
emotion,  an  exclamation  point  should  be  placed 
after  the  phrase  or  sentence,  and  not  after  the 
interjection.     If   the   interjection   does  not   unite 
very  closely  with  the  rest  of  the  exclamatory  ex- 
pression, it  may  be  followed  by  a  comma. 

Examples :  — 

0  look  here ! 

Alas,  I  did  not  know  the  way ! 


282  RULES   IN   GRAMMAR  (20 

Interrogative  Expressions 

20.  A  word,  phrase,  or  sentence  used  in  asking 
a  question  should  be  followed  by  an  interrogation 
point. 

Example :  — 

"  What  ?  "  said  Emmy  Lou. 

a.  An  indirect  question  should  not  be  followed 
by  an  interrogation  point. 

Example :  — 

She  asked  why  we  had  come. 

b.  Each  of  a  series  of  interrogative  expressions 
in  a  sentence  may  be  followed  by  an  interrogation 
point ;  or,  if  the  series  is  considered  to  be  a  climax, 
the  members  may  be  separated  by  commas  and  the 
interrogation  point  placed  at  the  end.     The  latter 
form  is  perhaps  preferable. 

Examples :  — 

Is  this  reasonable  ?  or  just  ?  or  honorable  ? 

Is  this  reasonable,  or  just,  or  honorable  ? 

EXERCISE 

Punctuate  the  following  sentences  correctly  and 
tell  why  the  marks  should  be  used. 

1.  Mr,C,H«James.Ph,Dywas  present* 

2.  There  was   a   spring  house   to   keep  the   milk   and 
butter  cool5 and  growing  around  it  were  tall  elm  trees . 

3.  Behindjthe  trees  rose  abruptly, 

4.  Every  one   seemed  singularly  anxious .  for  an  impor- 
tant question  was  being  discussed^ 


PUNCTUATION  283 

|    5.   The  children  were  laugh  ing ,  and  looking  up  I  saw  f 
the  teacher  watching  me 

6.   Pro£  RtM,  Brown  A «M»was  elected* 
/   7.   The  snow  was  deepj  therefore  we  remained  at  homer"" 

8.   The  pupils  pressed  in  their  Sunday  clothes  ^began  to  £* 
arrive , 

/  9.   Fortunately  father  was  at  home  • 

/ 10.    She  watched  the  big  red  flames  as  they  leaped  up     /7 
the  chimney. and  tenderly  rocked  her  dolly* 

11.  Suddenly  I  stoppedytrembling  with  fear. 

12.  He  ran  as  fast  as  he  could. scarcely  touching  the   JjT* 
ground  • 

13.  He  must  have  been  looking,  for  a  smile  covered  his  J 
face* 

/   14.   The  men  who  went  in  the  life-boat  were  saved,  but       / 
Joe  and  Henry  Hughes  who  remained  on  the  ship  were 
lost. 

15.  My  mother  insisted^  so  I  started  •  / 

16.  As  the  title  of  the  book  indicates^  the  plot  is  some- 
what sensational , 

17.  His  careful  use  of  the  English  language/ acquired 
from  his  teacher  who  was  a  thorough  student,  attracted  the 
attention  of  his  employers  and  he  was  promoted  * 

18.  The  letter,  however/was  not  written  . 

19.  We  found  some  fine  red  and  yellow  apples  - 

'  20.   Every  time  I  wanted  to  play,  the  piano  was  being    fjS 
used* 

f    21.   The  elements  of  success  are  these ;  heal th;  ability  /  jj 
energy -honesty  and  opportunity  * 

22.  After  all,  the  committee  should  not  be  discouraged  •       \  A 

23.  While  we  were  eating^a  large  flock  of  ducks  flew  by , 

24.  The  moon,  low  in  the  heavens f  seemed  to  rest  upon    (^ 
the  tree  tops  • 

25.  He  would  say,  tiow  children  run  and  play  for  grand- 
father wants  to  read » 


; 


t- 


284  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR 

*j       26.   The  school  ground  is  full  of  rank  weedsyand  slopes 
down  to  a  creek . 

27.  I  finally  went;feeling  gay  and  happy* 

28.  As  is  well  known,  the  man  who  committed  this  crime 
was  never  punished., 

29.  The  teacher  had  not  arrived,  so  we  sat  on  the  step  to 
wait  for  him  c 

30.  The  hired  man;  Henry  Wye/ whom  we  loved  ,used  to 
entertain  us  in  the  evening , 

31.  While  one  is  reading  the  book  should  not  be  held 
too  near  the  eyes  • 

V  32.   I  copied , 1  exclaimed,  and  for  a  moment  she  stared 

r      at  me*  / 

33.  Sammy   repeated    doggedly,  teacher    said,  bring   a 
|       valentine^  and  mother  I  must  take  a  valentine  » 

34.  There  were  large  cracks  between  the  logs  ^and  the 
door  had  large  cracks  also  • 

35.  To  tell  the  truth,!  do  not  care  to  go.    w 

36.  Are  you  sure  that  he  said,!  will  not  go    . 

37.  A  parenthetical  expression  should  be  set  off  by  the 
comma,' e.<7«  I  am,  as  I  said  before  ^satisfied  with  the  result  • 

-  38.   The  factory  was  burned! consequently  the  men  were 
out  of  employment 

339.   I  could  not  runf  for  my  coat  threatened  to  trip  me  at 
every  step  4 

/  40.   The  house  was  surrounded  by  several  tal^gnarled 

Y      oak  trees .         i 

41.   Hurrah . the  circus  is  coming. 

i          j    42.    Child  she  said  slowly  why  did  you  strike  your  sister 
but  I  could  not  reply, 

43.  His  square  chin  Chough  not  prominent,  added  to  the 
firm  appearance  of  his  face  * 

44.  He  told  the  story  of  the  three  bears  ;using  his  quaint 
and  charming  dialect* 

45.  On  either  side  .rows  of  benches  were  arranged  • 


2i)  THE  VERB  285 

THE  VERB  :    Number 

Although  composition  is  commonly  understood 
to  deal  with  discourse  rather  than  with  single 
sentences,  students  should  make  a  thorough  study 
of  sentence  structure  in  connection  with  the  com- 
position work.  Many  students  who  have  a  good 
knowledge  of  the  science  of  grammar  use  sentences 
that  are  grammatically  incorrect,  and  they  will 
continue  in  this  bad  usage  until  they  form  the  habit 
of  criticising  their  oral  and  written  discourse  and 
correcting  their  habitual  errors  in  sentence  con- 
struction. 

If  the  teacher  reads  the  sentences  in  the  follow- 
ing exercises,  the  student  should  be  able  to  tell 
whether  they  are  correct,  giving  his  reasons  and  the 
correct  form  of  the  sentence  in  each  case. 

Incomplete  Sentences 

21.  Every  sentence  should  have  a  verb.  A  par- 
ticipial phrase  or  a  phrase  containing  a  subordinate 
clause  should  never  be  punctuated  as  though  it 
were  a  complete  sentence. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  I  hurried  to  the  hall.  Having  been  informed 
that  I  was  needed. 

Correct :  I  hurried  to  the  hall,  having  been  informed 
that  I  was  needed. 

Incorrect :  We  ran  across  the  pasture  lot  where  the  cows 
were  nipping  the  tender  grass.  On  past  the  peach  tree  that 
bore  the  big  yellow  peaches, 


286  RULES   IN   GRAMMAR  (2I,  22 

Correct:  We  ran  across  the  pasture  lot  where  the  cows 
were  nipping  the  tender  grass.  On,  we  went,  past  the  peach 
tree  that  bore  the  big  yellow  peaches. 

Agreement  with  the  Subject 

22.  The  verb  in  a  sentence  should  agree  in  num- 
ber with  its  subject. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  It  don't  make  any  difference. 
Correct:  It  doesn't  make  any  difference. 
Correct:  At  the  end  of  the  room  were  seen  the  rafters 
of  the  house. 

a.  Two  exceptions  to  this  rule  are  to  be  noted. 
First,    The  pronoun  you  always  requires  the  plural 
form  of  the  verb. 

Second,  The  pronoun  /  requires  the  plural  of  all 
verbs  except  the  forms  am  and  was. 

b.  The    following   pronominal    expressions    are 
usually  considered  to  be  singular :  each,  every,  either, 
neither,  none,  one,  any  one,  each  one,  every  one,  no 
one,  some  one,  anybody,  everybody,  nobody,  somebody, 
and  a  person. 

Example :  — 

Every  one  of  the  prisoners  who  were  in  the  room  was 
liberated. 

c.  There  should  be  no  ellipsis  of  a  verb  in  a  com- 
pound sentence  if  the  subject  of   one  member  is 
singular  and  that  of  the  other  is  plural. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  School  was  called  and  lessons  begun. 

Correct :  School  was  called  and  lessons  ivere  begun. 


22,  23)  THE   VERB  287 

d.  Good  usage  alone  decides  that  some  words 
are  to  be  considered  plural  and  others  singular. 

The  following  words  are  thought  of  as  plural ; 
therefore  they  require  the  plural  form  of  the  verb : 
scissors,  tongs,  ashes,  ruins,  measles,  mumps,  athletics. 

Example :  — 

The  ruins  were  interesting. 

The  following  words  are  thought  of  as  singular ; 
therefore  they  require  the  singular  form  of  the 
verb  :  news,  molasses,  abundance,  and  nouns  ending 
in  ics  (except  athletics)  such  as  mathematics,  ethics, 
and  politics. 

Agreement  with  a  Compound  Subject 

23.  The  verb  should  be  plural  if  the  subject  is  com- 
pound, and  it  should  be  plural  if  it  is  common  to  two 
or  more  subjects  connected  by  and  or  both  and. 

Examples :  — 
Two  and  two  are  four. 

Both  the  pen  and  the  sword  are  necessary  to  government. 
At  the  side  of  the   path  were  a  hoe  and  a  basket  of 
potatoes. 

a.  An  exception  to  this  rule  occurs  occasionally 
when    the   parts   of   a  compound   subject    are   so 
combined  in  thought  that  they  seem  to  express  a 
single  idea. 

Example :  — 

Bread  and  milk  is  a  good  food. 

b.  Such  expressions  as  as  well  as,  together  ivifh, 
accompanied  by,  in  addition  to,  no  less  than,  includ- 


288  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (23-25 

ing,  and  excluding  do  not  form  plural  compounds 
requiring  a  plural  verb. 

Example :  — 

The  barn,  as  well  as  the  haystacks,  was  burned. 

Agreement  with  Collective  Nouns 

24.  Collective  nouns  require  the  verb  to  be  plural 
when  the  individuals  of  the  group  are  thought  of; 
if  the  group  is  thought  of  as  a  unit,  the  singular 
form  of  the  verb  should  be  used. 

Examples: — 

The  jury  were  leaning  forward  in  their  seats. 

The  jury  was  unanimous  in  its  decision. 

A  group  of  boys  was  seen  on  the  distant  hill. 

A  group  of  boys  were  throwing  stones  at  the  fish. 

Agreement  after  Or,  JTor,  etc. 

25.  When  such  a  conjunctive  expression   as  or, 
either  —  or,  nor,  neither  —  nor,  or  not  only  —  but  also  con- 
nects two  subjects  of  an  elliptical  compound   sen- 
tence, the  verb  should  agree  in  number  with  the 
subject  nearest  it.     However,  if  the  subjects  differ 
in  number,  the  ellipsis  should  be  supplied. 

Examples :  — 

Neither  the  farmer  nor  the  merchant  is  satisfied. 

Either  the  teacher  is  to  blame  or  the  pupils  are. 

EXERCISES 

Correct  the  following  sentences,  or  choose  the 
correct  form,  and  give  reasons  :  — 


25)  THE  VERB  289 

1.  The   boys  learned   that  Mr.  Scrogg's  watermelons 
were  ripe.     And  that  he  was  guarding  the  patch. 

2.  Neither  law  nor  duty  (require  or  requires)  this. 

3.  His  face  and  clothing  (was  or  tvere)  very  dirty. 

4.  A  number  of  pupils  (was  or  were)  kept  after  school. 

5.  The  furniture,  which  consisted  of  a  bed,  a  table,  and 
three  chairs,  (was  or  were)  made  of  oak. 

6.  The  teacher,  accompanied  by  her  pupils,  (was  or  were) 
in  the  park. 

7.  He  don't  know  what  to  do. 

8.  There  (was  or  were)  some  well  dressed  ladies  present. 

9.  We  started  by  motor  car  for   our   camping  place. 
The  tent  and  other  baggage  to  be  conveyed  by  wagons. 

10.  The  ruins  of  the  old  church  (was  or  were)  half  con- 
cealed by  weeds  and  shrubs. 

11.  Each  of  us  (was  or  were)  provided  with  a  slate  and  a 
pencil. 

12.  Both  the  farmer  and  the  merchant  (is  or  are)  satisfied. 

13.  The  molasses  (was  or  were)  all  over  our  aprons. 

14.  The  faculty  (was  or  were)  searching  in  all  parts  of 
the  building. 

15.  On  the  porch  (was  or  were)  the  rest  of  the  family 
waiting  for  me. 

16.  The  teacher  made  me  stand  on  the  floor.     Promising 
me  a  whipping  if  I  whispered  again. 

17.  The  visitors  were  welcomed  to  the  camp  and  dinner 
prepared  at  once. 

18.  Every  one  who  entered  the  building  (was  or  were) 
welcomed. 

19.  A  bowl  of  fruit  and  nuts  (was  or  were)  on  the  table. 

20.  Language,  history,  mathematics,  and  science  (was  or 
were)  the  course  of  study. 

21.  Not  one  person  in  ten  are  high  school  graduates. 

22.  The  number  of  them  (vary  or  varies)  from  month  to 
month. 


RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (26 

23.  His  work  at  home,  in  addition  to  his  many  duties  in 
the  office,  (take  or  takes)  all  his  time. 

24.  Each  threw  at  some  one  on  the  other  side.     The 
game  being  to  hit  one  of  the  opposing  party. 

25.  On  a  tree  near  the  door  (was  or  were)  nailed  a  dozen 
or  more  large  fish  heads. 

26.  Grandmother  would  tell  you  stories.     Stories  about 
giants,  fairies,  and  witches. 

27.  All  means  of  escape  (was  or  ivere)  destroyed. 

28.  Every  one  of  the  pupils  (was  or  were)  prepared. 

29.  This  collection  of  poems  (is  or  are)  an  expression  of 
Stevenson's  appreciation  of  child  life. 

30.  The  dim  light  of  the  watchman's  lantern,  appearing 
and  disappearing  as  he  moved  from  place  to  place. 

31.  In  the  distance  (was  or  were)  seen  the  steeples  of  the 
quaint  old  churches. 

THE  VERB:  Tense 
Principal  Parts 

26.  All  tense  forms  of  a  verb  may  be  derived  from 
three  tense  forms  (present,  past,  and  past  participle), 
called  principal  parts.  The  student  should  know  thor- 
oughly the  principal  parts  of  all  verbs  that  he  uses. 

a.  The  secondary  tenses  (present  perfect,  past 
perfect,  and  future  perfect)  may  be  formed  by  add- 
ing the  auxiliaries  have,  had,  and  shall  have  or  will 
have  to  the  past  participle ;  e.g.  have  eaten,  had 
eaten,  shall  have  eaten.  With  verbs  of  action, 
these  forms  indicate  that  the  action  is  completed 
at  the  present  time,  or  that  it  was  completed  at  a 
past  time,  or  that  it  will  be  completed  at  a  future 
time.  With  be  (the  verb  of  being)  these  forms  in- 


26)  THE   VERB  291 

dicate  that  a  state  or  condition  existed  during  a 
period  previous  to  the  present  time,  or  that  it  ex- 
isted during  a  period  previous  to  a  certain  past 
time,  or  that  it  will  exist  during  a  period  previous 
to  a  certain  future  time  ;  e.g.  I  have  been  rich ;  I 
had  been  rich ;  I  shall  have  been  rich. 

b.  The  verbs  in  the  following  columns  are  often 
misused  by  the  provincial  and  the  illiterate.  The 
student  should  know  them  thoroughly  and  should 
be  prepared  to  use  them  in  sentences  such  as  the 
following :  The  bird  flies ;  It  flew ;  It  has  flown  ; 
It  had  flown  ;  It  will  have  flown. 

Present  Past  Past  Participle 

ask  asked  asked 

awake  awoke  awaked 

begin  began  begun 

blow  blew  blown 

burst  burst  burst 

come  came  coine 

dive  dived  dived 

do  did  done 

drink  drank  drunk 

drown  drowned  drowned 

eat  ate  eaten 

flow  flowed  flowed 

fly  flew  flown 

forget  forgot  forgotten 

get  got  got 

go  went  gone 

lay  laid  laid 

lead  led  led 


2Q2 


RULES  IN   GRAMMAR 


(26t  27 


lie 

raise 

ride 

ring 

rise 

run 

see 

set 

sew 

sow 

sit 


swim 
throw 
wear 
write 


lay 

raised 

rode 

rang 

rose 

ran 

saw 

set 

sewed 

sowed 

sat 

spoke 

swam 

threw 

wore 

wrote 


lain 

raised 

ridden 

rung 

risen 

run 

seen 

set 

sewed 

sown 

sat 

spoken 

swum 

thrown 

worn 

written 


Consistent  Tense  Forms 

27.  The  tense  form  of  every  verb  should  be  consis- 
tent with  the  context ;  that  is,  with  the  time  that  is 
indicated  by  another  verb  or  expression  in  the  discourse. 

a.  The  tense  form  of  a  verb  should  be  consistent 
with  the  time  indicated  by  an  adverbial  expression. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect:  I  have  been  young  myself  once  [i.e.  at  one 
time]. 

Correct :  I  was  young  myself  once. 

6.  The  tense  form  of  a  verb  should  be  consist- 
ent with  the  time  indicated  by  another  verb. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  If  the  tariff  were  not  so  high  [present  time], 
wages  would  have  been  lower  [present  perfect  time]. 


27,  28)  THE  VERB  293 

Correct :  If  the  tariff  were  not  so  high,  wages  would  be 
lower. 

If  the  tariff  had  not  been  so  high,  wages  would  be  lower. 

If  the  tariff  had  not  been  so  high,  wages  would  have  been 
lower. 

c.  Though  the  time  of  the  action  or  condition 
expressed  by  the  verb  in  a  subordinate  clause  is  not 
the  same  as  that  expressed  by  the  verb  in  the  prin- 
cipal clause,  the  tense  form  may  be  the  same  if  the 
reader's  knowledge  of  facts  prevents  confusion. 
Such  agreement  in  tense  forms  is  illogical,  and 
should  not  be  used  unless  the  time  of  the  action 
expressed  by  the  verb  in  the  subordinate  clause  is 
entirely  clear. 

Examples :  — 

We  visited  Independence  Hall,  where  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  was  first  proclaimed  [before  the  time  of  the 
visit]. 

We  visited  the  hall  where  the  Chinese  wares  had  been  on 
exhibition. 

Sequence  of  Tenses 

28.  In  narrative  discourse  there  should  be  such 
changes  in  the  tense  forms  of  verbs  as  will  indicate 
changes  in  the  time  of  the  action  or  state  that  they 
express. 

a.  In  narration  the  past  tense  form  of  all  the 
verbs  is  regularly  used  if  the  actions  expressed  by  the 
verbs  are  related  in  the  order  in  which  they  occurred. 

Example :  — 

William  climbed  the  crest  of  the  hill,  sat  down,  laid  his 
book  on  the  grass,  and  listened  to  the  song  of  the  workmen. 


294  RULES  IN   GRAMMAR  (28,  2Q 

b.  When,  in  the  course  of  a  narrative,  a  writer 
turns  back  to  speak  of  an  earlier  action,  he  should 
use  the  past  perfect  tense.    This  is  an  important  rule. 

Example:  — 

Anne  went  to  the  east  gable  and  sat  down  by  the  window. 
How  sadly  things  had  changed  since  she  had  sat  there  the 
night  after  coming  home !  Then  she  had  been  full  of  hope 
and  joy,  and  the  future  had  looked  rosy  with  promise. 
Anne  felt  as  if  she  had  lived  years  since  then,  but  before  she 
went  to  bed  there  was  a  smile  on  her  lips,  and  peace  was  in 
her  heart.1 

c.  Avoid  the  use  of  the  historical  present  tense, 
and,  above  all,  avoid  so  confusing  it  with  the  past 
tense  that  the  sequence  of  the  actions  will  not  be 
clear. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  He  was  greatly  agitated ;  but,  after  a  moment's 
hesitation,  he  walks  to  the  door  and  admits  the  stranger. 

Correct :  He  was  greatly  agitated ;  but,  after  a  moment's 
hesitation,  he  walked  to  the  door  and  admitted  the  stranger. 

Present  Tense  in  Exposition 

29.  The  present  tense  usually  is  used  in  exposition. 

Usually  the  present  tense  should  be  used  in  the 
exposition  of  that  which  is  true  at  all  times,  such 
as  the  exposition  of  a  process. 

Examples :  — 

If  you  wish  to  fight  bumblebees,  stand  near  the  nest 
where  the  bees  fly  low. 

We  were  taught  that  the  earth  moves  round  the  sun. 

1From  Anne  of  Green  Gables,  by  L.  M.  Montgomery.  Copy- 
right, 1908,  by  L.  C.  Page  &  Company,  Inc. 


jo)  THE  VERB  295 

The  Tense  of  Infinitives 

30.  The  tense  of  an  infinitive  is  relative  to  that 
of  the  principal  verb. 

NOTE.  —  There  are  two  tense  forms  of  the  infinitive,  the 
present  and  the  past ;  e.y.  to  be,  to  have  been ;  to  ivalk,  to 
have  walked. 

a.  The  present  infinitive  should  be  used  not  only 
when  the  time  of  the  action  or  state  which  it  ex- 
presses is  the  same  as  that  of  the  principal  verb, 
but  also  when  it  is  later  than  that  of  the  principal 
verb.  It  should  never  be  used  when  it  expresses 
action  or  being  previous  to  that  of  the  principal 
verb. 

Examples :  — 

I  tried  to  be  economical. 

I  try  to  be  economical. 

I  shall  try  to  be  economical. 

I  was  going  to  invite  you. 

Incorrect :  I  was  going  to  have  invited  you. 

1).  The  past  infinitive  should  be  used  only  when 
it  expresses  an  action  or  being  previous  to  that  of 
the  principal  verb. 

Examples :  — 

He  was  thought  to  have  acted  dishonestly. 

He  is  thought  to  have  acted  dishonestly. 

He  will  be  thought  to  have  acted  dishonestly. 

My  knife  is  said  to  have  been  made  in  Austria. 

Incorrect :  My  knife  is  said  to  be  made  in  Austria. 


296  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR 

EXERCISE 

Correct  the  following  sentences,  or  choose  the 
correct  form,  and  give  reasons. 

1.  After  I  had  (laid  or  lain)  the  book  on  the  table  I  (laid 
or  lay)  down. 

2.  He  wished  he  (would  have  or  had)  obeyed  his  parents. 

3.  At  last  the  opposing  sides  were  chosen  and  we  had 
spelled  halfway  through  the  spelling  book. 

4.  The  water  (rose  or  raised}  rapidly. 

5.  I  intended  (to  write  or  to  have  written)  yesterday. 

6.  You  have  known  me  since  I  (was  or  have  been)  a 
very  small  child. 

7.  He  came  for  the  third  time  and  ask,  "  Mamma,  may 
I  go  to  the  store  ?  " 

8.  I  should  have  been  glad  (to  listen  or  to  have  listened) 
longer. 

9.  After  having  gone. 

10.  In  this  way  talent  is  sometimes  discovered  which, 
otherwise,  would  never  have  been  found. 

11.  They  would  like  to  have  remained. 

12.  The  people  who  were  left  on  the  wharf  had  gone  home. 

13.  Cromwell  was   promoted  until   he  had  reached  the 
throne  itself  and  became  the  head  of  the  English  nation. 

14.  It  seemed  certain  that  he  (ivould  be  or  would  have 
been)  elected. 

15.  The  house  was  said  (to  be  or  to  have  been)  burned  by 
Indians  in  1768. 

16.  We  had  had  an  entertainment  at  school  in  which  I 
(took  or  had  taken)  part. 

17.  I  should  have  been  uninjured  if  I  (had  not  taken  or 
had  not  have  taken)  that  last  trip  down  the  hill. 

18.  If  he  (had  asked  or  had  have  asked)  me,  I  should 
have  told  him. 

19.  We  were  (then  or  now)  near  the  shore. 


jl)  THE  VERB  "297 

THE  VERB:    Miscellaneous 
Shall  and  Will 

31.  Each  of  the  words  shall  and  will  has  two  dis- 
tinct meanings.  Each  may  be  simply  a  future  tense 
sign.  Each  may  express  volition,  such  as  determi- 
nation or  willingness. 

a.  As  tense  sign  in  declarative  sentences  :     In  a 
simple  statement  of  what  will  be  at  a  future  time, 
shall  should  be  used  with  the  first  person  and  will 
with  the  second  and  third  persons. 

Examples :  — 

I  (or  we)  shall  be  ten  years  old  to-morrow. 

You  (he,  she,  they,  or  it)  will  enjoy  the  visit. 

1  shall  be  glad  to  help  you. 

Incorrect:  I  will  be  glad  to  help  you. 

b.  As  verbs  expressing  volition  :      Will  should  be 
used  with  the  first,  second,  or  third  person  to  ex- 
press determination  or  willingness  of  that  person. 
Shall  should  be  used  with  the  second  or  third  person 
to  express  determination  of  the  first  person  (the 
speaker)  regarding  that  person. 

Examples :  — 

I  (or  we)  will  help  him.     I  promise  to  do  so. 

NOTE.  —  The  sentence,  /  shall  help  him,  would  express 
futurity  without  determination. 

You  (he,  she,  they,  or  it)  shall  be  paid. 

NOTE.  —  The  sentence,  You  will  be  paid,  would  express  fu- 
turity without  responsibility  on  the  part  of  the  speaker. 

You  (he,  she,  they,  or  it)  shall  pay  the  debt.  I  am  de- 
termined. 


2Q8  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (jj,  j2 

c.  In  indirect  quotation  :    In  indirect  quotations, 
that  form  should  be  used  which  was  used  by  the  one 
who  is  quoted. 

Examples :  — 

He  says  that  he  shall  be  glad  to  visit  us. 
(Direct :  "  I  shall  be  glad  to  visit  you.") 
He  says  that  he  will  bring  the  book.      (Direct :  "  I  will 
bring  the  book.") 

d.  In  questions:  Shall  is  regularly  used  with  the 
first  person.     That  form  is  used  with  the  second 
and  third  persons  which  is  expected  in  the  reply. 

Examples :  — 

Shall  I  help  you  ? 

Shall  you  be  ten  years  old  to-morrow  ? 

Will  you  bring  me  the  book? 

Should  and  Would 

32.  The  words  should  and  would  have  meanings 
that  correspond  to  the  meanings  of  the  present 
forms  shall  and  will.  They  also  have  other  mean- 
ings. In  deciding  which  word  to  use  with  a  subject 
of  the  first  person  or  with  a  subject  of  the  second  or 
third  person  (except  in  conditional  clauses),  apply 
the  principles  that  govern  the  uses  of  shall  and  will 

a.  As  tense  signs  in  declarative  sentences :  Except 
in  conditional  clauses,  should  and  would  should  be 
considered  merely  past  tense  forms  of  shall  and  will 
when  they  follow  verbs  of  the  past  tense  form. 
(Remember  that  shall  and  will  as  tense  signs,  ex- 
press future  time.) 


THE  VERB  399 

Examples :  — 

If  you  were  here,  I  should  be  glad  to  entertain  you. 

If  you  were  here,  he  would  be  glad  to  entertain  you. 

b.  As  verbs  expressing  volition :  Should  and  would 
are  used  like  shall  and  will  to  express  determination 
or  willingness.     Would  should  be  used  with  a  sub- 
ject of  any  person  to  express  volition  of  that  per- 
son.    Should  must  be  used  with  a  subject  of  the 
second  or  third  person  to  express  volition  of  the 
speaker  regarding  that  person. 

Examples :  — 

Yesterday  I  (we,  he,  she,  they,  or  it)  would  not  study 
my  lesson. 

If  I  were  king,  you  should  not  be  allowed  to  do  this. 

c.  In  indirect  quotations :  In  indirect  quotations, 
should  and  would  should  be  considered  merely  past 
tense  forms  of  shall  and  will.     That  form  should  be 
used  which  was  used  by  the  one  who  is  quoted. 

NOTE. — Indirect  quotations  sometimes  follow  verbs  of 
thinking,  fearing,  hoping,  etc. 
Examples :  — 

He  said  that  he  should  be  glad  to  visit  us. 
He  said  that  he  would  bring  the  book. 
He  feared  that  he  should  be  sick. 

d.  In  questions  :  That  form  should  be  used  which 
is  expected  in  the  reply. 

Examples :  — 

Should  I  (we,  you,  he,  she,  they,  or  it)  help  him  ? 
Do  you  think  that  I  (we,  you,  he,  she,  they,  or  it)  would 
steal? 


RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (jj,  j4 

Irregular  Use  of  Should  and  Would 

33.  a.   In  conditional  clauses  :    In   a  conditional 
clause  should  should  be  used  with  a  subject  of  any 
person  to  express  futurity  and  would  with  a  subject 
of  any  person  to  express  volition. 

Examples :  — 

If  I  (we,  he,  she,  they,  or  it)  should  be  late  to  school,  the 
teacher  would  not  punish  me. 

If  I  (we,  you,  he,  she,  they,  or  it)  would  not  obey  the  rules 
when  I  had  been  commanded  to  do  so,  the  teacher  might 
punish  me. 

I  (we,  etc.)  could  go  if  I  would. 

b.  Should  may  be  used  with  a  subject  of  any 
person  to  express  the  idea  of  duty  or  propriety. 

Example :  — 

I  (we,  he,  she,  they,  or  it)  should  pay  this  debt. 

c.  Would  in  generalized  reminiscence :  Would  may 
be  used  with  a  subject  of   any  person  to  express 
habitual  action. 

Example :  — 

I  (we,  he,  she,  they,  or  it)  would  sit  by  the  fire  for  hours. 

Verbs  followed  by  Predicate  Adjectives 

34.  Some  verbs  may  be  followed  by  predicate 
adjectives.     Adjectives  so  used  tell  the  nature  of 
the  subject  rather  than  the  nature  of  the  action  or 
state  expressed  by  the  verb.     The  adjective  use  is 
the  same  as  it  would  be  after  the  pure  verb  be. 
An  adverb,  corresponding   to  the  adjective,  may 
sometimes  be  used,  with  a  different  meaning,  after 


34,  J5)  THE  VERB  301 

such  verbs.  The  following  are  some  verbs  that 
maybe  so  used:  seem, appear,  look, sound, smell,  taste, 
feel,  grow,  get,  sit,  stand,  remain,  continue,  and  turn. 

Examples :  — 

He  looks  angry  ;  He  stood  idle ;  It  sounds  clear ;  He  con- 
tinued enthusiastic,  or  He  continued  enthusiastically;  He 
feels  bad. 

NOTE.  —  Usage  has  given  some  authority  for  the  expres- 
sion, He  feels  badly. 

Subjunctive  Mode  with  the  Verb  Be 

35.  It  is  best  to  use  the  subjunctive  form  of  the 
verb  be  in  clauses  in  which  the  action  or  state  is 
merely  supposed  to  exist  in  present  time. 

If  a  sentence  expresses  action  or  state  as  asserted, 
the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  indicative  mode.  If  it 
expresses  it  as  commanded,  the  verb  is  said  to  be 
in  the  imperative  mode.  If  it  expresses  it  as 
sought  by  a  question,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the 
interrogative  mode.  If  it  expresses  it  merely  as 
a  supposition,  the  verb  is  said  to  be  in  the  subjunc- 
tive mode. 

The  only  English  verb  now  regularly  inflected  to 
indicate  subjunctive  mode  is  the  verb  be;  how- 
ever, some  writers  inflect  other  verbs ;  e.g.  I  shall 
go  if  it  seem  best. 

The  present  subjunctive  form,  be,  denotes  that 
the  supposition  possibly  is  true.  The  subjunctive 
form  were  denotes  that  the  supposition  is  contrary 
to  fact.  It  expresses  present  time. 


302  RULES  IN   GRAMMAR  (35,  36 

Example :  — 

If  he  be  honest,  I  do  not  know  it. 

If  I  were  a  millionaire,  I  would  help  you. 

She  would  not  go,  if  she  were  in  my  place. 

EXERCISES 

In  the  following  sentences  use  shall,  will,  should  or  would 
and  give  reasons  for  your  choice  in  each  sentence. 

1.  We be  pleased  to  have  you  call  on  us,  if  you 

visit  our  city. 

2.  I be  very  grateful  to  you  for  your  help. 

3.   you  study  composition  next  year  ? 

4.  He  said  that  he not  be  sorry  to  leave  the  farm. 

5.  I buy  the  ticket  for  you  if  you  wish  me  to  do  so. 

6.  He not  obey  me. 

7.  If  grandfather sell  the  old  horse,  grandmother 

be  displeased. 

8. we  have  time  to  go  to  the  pond  ? 

9.   If  he not  keep  his  promise,  I not  excuse 

him. 

10.    When  — —  you  be  graduated  ? 

11    He  feared  that  he •  be  compelled  to  pay  the  debt. 

12.   he  not  be  satisfied  with  this  position  ? 

13.   you  not  be  afraid  if  you  were  in  my  position  ? 

PRONOUNS 

Definite  Antecedent 

36.  Every  pronoun  should  have  a  definite  ante- 
cedent, and  the  sentence  should  be  so  constructed  that 
there  can  be  no  doubt  what  the  pronoun  signifies. 

Examples:  — 

Incorrect :  He  had  dug  up  a  bees'  nest,  and  about  a  dozen 
of  them  were  on  him. 

When  Clarence  met  the  guide  he  was  hungry  and  tired. 


36, 37)  PRONOUNS  303 

Correct :  He  had  dug  up  a  bees'  nest,  and  about  a  dozen  of 
the  bees  were  on  him. 

Clarence  was  hungry  and  tired  when  the  guide  met  him ; 
or,  The  guide  was  hungry  and  tired  when  Clarence  met  him. 

a.  Different  pronouns  should  not  be  used  in  a 
sentence  to  signify  the  same  thing. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  We  have  heard  so  much  complaint  that  one  is 
led  to  ask  the  cause. 

Correct :  We  have  heard  so  much  complaint  that  ive  are 
led  to  ask  the  cause. 

b.  A  phrase  or  clause  should  not  be  made  the 
antecedent  of  a  pronoun.     See  56  Note. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  Herbert  ate  candy  in  school,  which  the  teacher 
did  not  like. 

Correct:  Herbert  ate  candy  in  school,  and  the  teacher 
did  not  wish  him  to  do  so  ;  or,  better,  Herbert  annoyed  the 
teacher  by  eating  candy  in  school. 

Number:  Agreement  of  Subject  and  Predicate  Substantive 

37.  The  noun  or  pronoun  used  as  subject  and  the 
noun  or  pronoun  used  as  predicate  (that  is,  after  the 
verb  be,  is,  are,  were,  etc.)  should  agree  in  number. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  High  school  fraternities  are  one  of  the  things 
that  destroy  the  spirit  of  democracy. 

Correct :  The  high  school  fraternity  is  one  of  the  things 
that  destroy  the  spirit  of  democracy ;  or,  High  school  fra- 
ternities are  among  the  things  that  destroy  the  spirit  of 
democracy. 


504  RULES  IN   GRAMMAR  (37~39 

a.  An  intensive  pronoun  (myself,  himself,  etc.) 
should  not  be  used  where  the  simple  form  of  the 
pronoun  could  be  used. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  Mary  and  myself  were  the  speakers. 

Correct :  Mary  and  /  were  the  speakers. 

Number:  Agreement  with  the  Antecedent 

38.  A  pronoun  should  agree  with  its  antecedent  in 
number.     Violations  of  this  rule  are  made  in  the 
use  of  the  personal  pronouns  (/,  me,  you,  he,  them, 
etc.). 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  If  anybody  calls,  tell  them  that  I  am  not  at 
home. 

Correct :  If  anybody  calls,  tell  him  that  I  am  not  at 
home.  See  22  b. 

Incorrect:  In  China,  women  were  kept  in  seclusion. 
Custom  forbade  her  appearance  on  the  street. 

Correct :  In  China,  women  were  kept  in  seclusion. 
Custom  forbade  their  appearance  011  the  street. 

Antecedents  of  Relative  Pronouns 

39.  Use  relative  pronouns  that  are  appropriate. 
The  simple  relative  pronouns  are  the  words  who, 
whose,  whom,  that,  which,  but,  and  as. 

Who :  The  words  who,  whose,  and  whom  may 
refer  to  persons  or  to  personified  objects. 

Which:  The  word  which  may  refer  to  inanimate 
objects,  to  children,  or  to  lower  animals. 


jp,  40)  PRONOUNS  305 

That,  But,  and  As :  The  words  that,  but,  and  as 
may  refer  to  persons,  personified  objects,  lower 
animals,  or  inanimate  objects,  or  to  any  two  or 
more  of  these  taken  together. 

a.  The  word  that  should  not  be  used  as  subject 
of  a  descriptive  adjective  clause. 

Example :  — 

This  knife,  which  (not  that)  I  found  to-day,  belongs  to 
my  teacher. 

&.  The  word  as  should  be  used  as  the  relative 
pronoun  when  the  antecedent  or  part  of  the  ante- 
cedent is  the  word  such. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  He  gave  such  orders  that  I  had  given. 

Correct :  He  gave  such  orders  as  I  had  given. 

c.  The  word  what  should  not  be  used  as  a  simple 
relative  pronoun ;  that  is,  it  should  not  be  made  to 
refer  to  an  antecedent  in  the  principal  clause.  It 
may  be  a  compound  relative  pronoun. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  This  is  the  place  what  I  saw. 
Correct:  This  is  the  place  that  I  saw. 
I  know  what  you  did. 

Relational  Use  of  the  Relative  Pronouns 

40.  A  relative  pronoun  should  not  be  used  unless 
it  has  a  distinctive  connective  use. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect:  We  will  give  you  whatever  assistance  that 
we  can. 


306  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (40-43 

NOTE.  — In  this  sentence  there  are  incorrectly  two  rela- 
tive pronouns,  and  only  one  subordinate  clause. 

Correct:  We  will  give  you  whatever  assistance  we  can; 
or,  We  will  give  you  all  the  assistance  that  we  can. 

Case :  of  Compound  Relative  Pronouns 

41.  The  case  form  of  a  compound  relative  pronoun 
is  determined  by  its  use  in  the  subordinate  clause. 

Violations  of  this  rule  are  made  in  the  use  of  the 
words  whoever  and  whomever  (or  whosoever  and 
whomsoever). 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  Whoever  the  king  favors  is  fortunate. 

Correct :   Whomever  the  king  favors  is  fortunate. 
We  will  engage  whoever  is  best  qualified. 

Case  :  of  a  Predicate  Substantive 

42.  A  pronoun  used  as  predicate  substantive  (i.e., 
after  the  verb  be,  is,  are,  was,  were,  etc.)  should 
be  of  the  nominative  case  form. 

Examples :  — 

We  did  not  know  that  it  was  she. 
It  is  /. 

NOTE.  —  A  few  rhetoricians  defend  the  use  of  the  expres- 
sion, "  It  is  me." 

Case:  of  Objective  Complements 

43.  The  direct  and  the  indirect  objects  of  verbs 
and  of  infinitives  should  be  of  the  objective  case  form. 

Examples :  — 
Whom  do  you  want  ? 
He  helped  John  and  me. 


43~45)  PRONOUNS  307 

Whom  did  you  say  they  elected  ? 
They  gave  it  to  us  girls. 
We  did  not  know  whom  to  engage. 
Incomect :  They  gave  it  to  we  girls. 

Case :  of  Principal  Word  of  a  Prepositional  Phrase 

44.  The  principal  word  of  a  prepositional  phrase 
should  be  of  the  objective  case  form. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  She  walked  with  my  sister  and  I. 
Correct:  She  walked  with  my  sister  and  me. 
We  shall  see  whom  the  joke  is  on. 

a.  The  sentence,  She  is  tatter  than  /,  is  correct. 
The  word  "  than  "  is  not  a  preposition  ;  it  is  a  con- 
junction. The  sentence  means,  She  is  taller  than  I 
am  tall. 

Case :  of  Appositive  Modifiers 

45.  A   pronoun  used   as  an   appositive  modifier 
should  agree  with  its  antecedent  in  case. 

Examples :  — 

Her  two  nephews,  James  and  /,  were  with  her. 
The  invitation  included  all  :  her,  them,  and  me. 
Every  one  should  obey  the  command :  7,  she,  and  they. 

EXERCISES 

Correct  the  following  sentences,  or  choose  the 
correct  form,  and  give  reasons. 

1.  Every  evening  I  went  to  the  woods  to  watch   them 
make  maple  sirup. 

2.  The  crane  is  not  seen  so  often   in  this   part  of  the 
country  as  (they  or  it)  formerly  (ivere  or  was). 


308  RULES   IN   GRAMMAR 

3.  When  one  goes  camping  you  are  shut  off  from  all 
civilization. 

4.  The  men  (that,  which)  or  who)  constitute  the  team  are 
absent. 

5.  There  was  not  a  man  (but  who,  but,  or  but  that)  was 
in  his  place. 

6.  He  resolved  to  tell  no  more  fibs,  which  gave   his 
father  much  pleasure. 

7.  There  stood  his  father  (who  or  whom)  he  thought 
had  gone  to  town. 

8.  The  rain  had  driven  my  sister  and  (/or  me)  from  play. 

9.  She  examined  each  book  carefully  and  placed  them 
again  on  the  shelf. 

10.  Sparrows  are  one  of  the  creatures  that  have  followed 
civilization. 

11.  The  fairy  told  him  about  what  strange  things  that  it 
could  do. 

12.  He  was  older  than  (/or  me). 

13.  He  sent  the  book  to  James  and  (/  or  me). 

14.  One  day  George  and  (myself  or  I)  went  hunting  for 
birds'  nests. 

15.  It  tells  about  giants  in  my  story  book. 

16.  I  knew  that  it  was  (he  or  him). 

17.  I  had  visions  of  standing  before  one  (who  or  whom) 
I  knew  would  hate  me. 

18.  His  face  was  wrinkled,  and  they  seemed  to  gather 
about  his  mouth  and  eyes. 

19.  They  arrived  at  the  fire  sooner  than  (we  or  us). 

20.  He  punished  the  culprits,  Mary  and  (/  or  me). 

21.  (  Yourself  or  you)  and  your  friends  are  invited. 

22.  Mother  went  to  town  and  left  Mary  and  (/  or  me)  to 
do  the  work. 

23.  That  morning  it  poured  down  rain. 

24.  The  old  country  school  has  its  advantages.     They 
are  more  democratic  than  city  schools. 


46)  MODIFIERS  309 

25.  It  was  an  exciting  day  for  my  sister  and  (J  or  me). 

26.  In  the  center  of  the  attic  it  was  entirely  vacant. 

27.  We  saw  the  cowboys  attacked  by  Indians,  and  they 
killed  so  many  that  they  were  victorious. 

28.  The  fire  scorched  the  molasses  and  caused  (them  or  it) 
to  turn  black. 

29.  I  heard  the  clang  of  the  fire  engine  and  started  to 
find  it. 

30.  Our  school  house,  (which  or  that)  was  little  and  old, 
was  half  a  mile  distant. 

31.  In  our  little  town  every  one  went  to  church  on  Sun- 
day as  regularly  as  they  washed  on  Monday. 

32.  All  along  the  streets  were  stands  where  they  sold 
refreshments. 

MODIFIERS 

The  student  should  know  the  exact  use  of  every 
part  of  his  sentence,  and  he  should  arrange  the  parts 
so  that  their  use  will  be  apparent.  He  should 
give  special  attention  to  the  construction  of  parti- 
cipial phrases  and  to  the  arrangement  of  such  words 
as  only,  almost,  and  not. 

Double  Negatives 

46.  Avoid  the  repetition  of  a  negative  modifier : 
a  double  negative  makes  the  assertion  positive. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  The  room  had  not  been  used  for  many  years 
only  as  a  storeroom. 

Correct :  The  room  had  not  been  used  for  many  years 
except  as  a  storeroom ;  or,  For  many  years  the  room  had 
been  used  only  as  a  storeroom. 


310  RULES  IN   GRAMMAR  (47,  48 

Redundant  Modifiers 

47.  Avoid  useless  modifiers.     A  modifier  should 
not  be  used  unless  it  is  necessary  to  express  the 
thought. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  The  sun  was  rising  in  the  east. 

The  hillside  was  becoming  indistinct  to  sight. 

Correct :  The  sun  was  rising. 

The  hillside  was  becoming  indistinct. 

Ellipsis  of  Modifiers 

48.  There  should  be  no  ellipsis  of  a  modifier  which 
is  common  to  two  or  more  words  if  the  ellipsis  would 
cause  doubt  as  to  the  meaning  of  the  sentence  or  if 
it  would  cause  the  sentence  to  sound  awkward. 

a.  The  articles  a,  an,  and  the,  and  the  possessive 
pronouns  should  not  be  omitted  before  any  of  the 
terms  of  a  series  of  coordinate  expressions  if  the 
ellipsis  would  cause  doubt  as  to  the  number  of  terms. 
If  one  of  these  modifiers  is  used  with  more  than  the 
first  term  of  a  series,  it  should  be  used  with  all  of 
them. 

Examples :  — 

One  person :  We  saw  a  lawyer  and  politician. 

Two  persons :  We  saw  a  lawyer  and  a  politician. 

Incorrect :  The  trees,  the  grass,  and  flowers  were  covered 
with  dust. 

Correct :  The  trees,  the  grass,  and  the  flowers  were 
covered  with  dust. 

b.  Avoid  the  ellipsis  of  a  modifier  if  the  omission 
causes  an  awkward  sentence  construction.    See  63  a. 


48-50)  MODIFIERS  311 

Examples :  — 

Awkward :  The  cars  were  piled  on  top  of  and  around  the 
engine. 

Better  form:  The  cars  were  piled  on  top  of  the  engine 
and  around  it. 

NOTE. —  Such  elliptical  constructions  are  sometimes  found 
in  legal  writing. 

Dangling  Modifiers 

49.  There  should  be  no  ellipsis  of  the  word  that  a 
modifier  is  intended  to  modify.     Supply  the  word  or 
recast  the  sentence. 

This  error  sometimes  gives  the  sentence  a  mean- 
ing that  is  not  intended,  especially  when  a  tem- 
poral clause  (clause  expressing  time)  or  a  participial 
phrase  is  used. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  When  a  little  girl,  my  grandmother  often  told 
me  stories. 

We  started  to  the  woods,  arriving  there  at  ten  o'clock. 

Correct :  When  /  ivas  a  little  girl,  my  grandmother  often 
told  me  stories. 

We  started  to  the  woods,  and  arrived  there  at  ten  o'clock. 

Irrelevant  Modifiers 

50.  Modifiers  that    draw  the  reader's   attention 
from  the  principal  thought  should  not  be  used. 

When  there  are  long  modifiers  within  modifiers, 
the  writer  and  the  reader  sometimes  forget  what 
the  sentence  is  about.  Sentences  containing  such 
irrelevant  modifiers  have  been  called  "  house-that- 
Jack-built"  sentences.  If  an  irrelevant  modifier 


312  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (50,  5! 

contains  material  of  real  importance,  it  should 
be  reconstructed  as  a  coordinate  clause  or  as  a  sepa- 
rate sentence. 

Examples :  — 

Not  unified :  The  sun  looked  like  a  ball  of  fire  as  it  arose 
through  the  heavy  fog  that  hung  over  the  large  grassy 
meadow  which  was  dotted  with  small  ponds  of  fresh  water 
that  shone  in  the  morning  light  like  sheets  of  silver. 

Better  form:  As  the  sun  arose  through  the  heavy  fog 
that  hung  over  the  large  grassy  meadow,  it  looked  like  a 
ball  of  fire.  The  small  ponds  of  fresh  water  that  dotted 
the  meadow  shone  in  the  morning  light  like  sheets  of  silver. 

Indefinite  Modifiers 

51.   Avoid  the  use  of  indefinite  modifiers. 

a.  The  expressions  so,  such,  and  such  a,  should 
not  be  used  indefinitely  when  they  are  not  followed 
by  a  clause  expressing  result. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  It  was  such  a  beautiful  day. 
Correct :  It  was  a  beautiful  day. 

It  was  such  a  beautiful  horse  that  every  one  stopped  to 
admire  it. 

b.  The  demonstrative  adjective  those,  when  it  is 
not  supplemented  by  a  limiting  adjective  modifier, 
should  not  be  used  indefinitely. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  He  told  some  of  those  old  sea  yarns. 
Correct :  He  told  some  old  sea  yarns. 
He  told  some  of  those  old  sea  yarns  that  only  sailors 
can  tell  effectively. 


51-53)  MODIFIERS  313 

c.  The  superlative  form  of  an  adjective  should 
not  be  used  indefinitely. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  The  girl  had  the  prettiest  brown  eyes  and  the 
sweetest  little  face. 

Correct:  The  girl  had  the  prettiest  brown  eyes  and  the 
sweetest  little  face  that  I  had  ever  seen. 

Arrangement  of  Modifiers 

52.  A  modifier  should  be  so  placed  that  its  use 
will  he  apparent. 

The  following  sentences  have  different  meanings : 
This  man  only  was  asked  for  money.  This  man  was 
only  asked  for  money.  This  man  was  asked  only 
for  money. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  He  paid  for  the  book  that  he  had  lost  the  next 
day. 

Correct :  The  next  day  he  paid  for  the  book  that  he  had 
lost. 

a.  A  construction  known  as  the  "  split  infini- 
tive" is  occasionally  used  by  good  writers,  but  it 
should  be  avoided.  The  word  to  is  the  sign  of  the 
infinitive  and  it  should  not  be  separated  from  the 
infinitive  root  by  a  modifier. 

Bad  form :  We  desired  to  thoroughly  explore  the  cave. 
Good  form:  We  desired  to  explore  the  cave  thoroughly. 

Possessive  Modifiers 

53.  The  possessive  form  of  nouns  is  regularly 
made  by  adding  's  to  words  not  ending  in  an  s 


314  RULES   IN  GRAMMAR  (53,  54 

sound,  and  by  adding  an  apostrophe  to  words  that 
end  in  an  s  sound ;  e.g.  A  boy's  task ;  The  boys' 
task  ;  The  men's  task. 

a.  It  is  best  to  form  the  possessive  of  proper 
names  by  adding  9s  unless  the  addition  makes  the 
name  difficult  to  pronounce. 

Good  form :  Keats's  poems ;  Holmes's  books. 

b.  The  apostrophe  should  never  be  used  with 
the  possessive  pronouns  its,  his,  theirs,  and  yours. 

c.  When  two  names  are  combined  in  one  pos- 
session, the  apostrophe  should  be  used  with  only 
the  last  name;  e.g. 

The  Farmers  and  Merchants7  bank. 

d.  The  apostrophe  should  not  be  omitted  with 
nouns  denoting  time  when  they  are  used  as  posses- 
sive modifiers ;  e.g. 

A  year's  experience ;  A  six  weeks'  vacation. 

e.  It  is  best  to  avoid   the   possessive   form  in 
nouns  that  denote  inanimate  objects,  and  where 
there  is  no  actual  possession.     Thus,  it  is  better  to 
say,  The  leaves  of  the  tree,  than,  The  trees  leaves. 

Possessive  Modifier  with  a  Gerund 

54.  The  possessive  use  of  a  noun  or  pronoun  is 
often  not  recognized  in  a  prepositional  phrase  that 
contains  a  gerund. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  The  thought  of  you  being  alone  troubles  me. 


54i  55)  MODIFIERS  315 

He  had  never  said  a  word  about  John  going  to  college. 
Correct:  The  thought  of  your  being  alone  troubles  ine. 
He  had  never  said  a  word  about  John's  going  to  college. 

a.  A  participle  used  as  an  adjective  modifier  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  a  gerund  used  as  the  prin- 
cipal word  of  a  prepositional  phrase ;  e.g. 

We  listened  to  the  bird  singing  in  the  apple  tree. 

Demonstrative  Adjective  Modifiers 

55.  A  demonstrative  adjective  (this,  that,  these,  or 
those),  when  used  as  a  modifier,  should  agree  in 
number  with  the  word  it  modifies. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  He  filled  his  library  with  these  kind  of  books. 

Correct :  He  filled  his  library  with  this  kind  of  books. 

EXERCISES 

Correct  the  following  sentences  and  give  reasons. 

1.  He  was  returning  back  to  the  city.  o^wT* 

2.  After  singing  some  old,  high  school  songs,  the  auto- 
mobile carried  us  back  to  the  city. 

3.  No  one  never  knew  who  took  the  book.  ad*/"* 

4.  It  is  undignified  for  and  unbecoming  to  men  to  fight. 

5.  She  was  a  girl  of  about  twenty  years  of  age. 

6.  Every  pupil  is  not  industrious.  A<W*\ 
1.   He  had  a  thirty-six  months  license  to  teach. 

8.  It  was  an  ideal  day  for  a  picnic,  for  the  sun  was  so 
bright  and  the  flowers  were  so  beautiful. 

9.  He  was  almost  if  not  the  oldest  man  in  the  town. 

10.  Looking  carefully  into  the   trees,   discarded   birds' 
nests  could  be  seen. 

11.  We  could  not  guess  it's  meaning. 


316  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR 

12.  It  was  one   of  those   bright,   moonlight  nights   in 
summer. 

13.  He  was  not  expected  to  live  but  a  short  time. 

14.  We  packed  our  provisions  when  we  left  camp  in  a 
heavy  pine  box. 

15.  They  decided  to  immediately  depart. 

16.  His  father  and  his  mother  and  sister  were  with  him. 

17.  While  fumbling  in  his  pocket  for  the   money,  the 
train  began  to  move. 

18.  We  rented  a  boat  from  a  farmer  about  fifteen  feet 
long. 

19.  He  disappeared  from  sight. 

20.  High  school  fraternities  are  copied  after,  and  they 
probably  originated  from  college  fraternities. 

21.  We  lived  in  one  of  those  little  towns  in  which  there 
was  no  theater.  v 

22.  We  met  a  hardy  throng  of  fishermen.  o^f^f 

23.  We  visited  Aunt  Mary,  remaining  with  her  all  my.    /^ 

24.  The  world  usually  admires  and  demands  the  polite 
person  for  the  responsible  position. 

25.  He  usually  always  goes  to  town  on  Saturday. 

26.  There  was  scarcely  no  wind. 

27.  Sitting  around  our  camp  fire,  the  shadows  seem 
be  fantastic  creatures. 

28.  The  sun  was  sinking  down  below  the  horizon, 

29.  I  learned  to  almost  hate  him. 

30.  I  want  out.     I  want  off. 

31.  We  did  not  like  those  kind  of  grapes. 

32.  He  came  a  half  an  hour  later.  -Jby  * 

COORDINATION  AND   SUBORDINATION  OF  THOUGHTS 
Complex  Sentences 

A  thought  which  acts  as  the  subject  or  predicate 
of  another  thought  is  said  to  be  dependent,  or  sub- 


COORDINATION  AND   SUBORDINATION  317 

ordinate ;  the  clause  that  expresses  a  dependent 
thought  is  called  a  dependent,  or  subordinate, 
clause,  and  the  sentence  that  contains  a  dependent 
clause  is  said  to  be  complex.  The  sentence,  He 
came  ivhen  he  was  called,  is  complex,  and  the  clause, 
when  he  was  called,  is  dependent,  because  the  clause 
is  a  part  of  the  predicate,  came  when  he  was  called. 

The  sentence,  Why  he  did  this  is  not  known,  is 
complex,  and  the  clause,  Why  he  did  this,  is  de- 
pendent, because  the  clause  is  the  subject  of  the 
sentence. 

The  connectives  that  are  used  in  complex  sen- 
tences may  be  placed  in  three  groups :  first, 
relative  pronouns,  such  as  who,  whoever,  which, 
lohichever,  what,  whatever,  that,  but,  and  as  ;  second, 
conjunctive  adverbs,  such  as  when,  whenever,  where, 
wherever,  whereon,  wherein,  while,  whence,  and  as; 
third,  pure  subordinate  conjunctions,  such  as,  if, 
for,  because,  after,  before,  until,  as,  that,  and  in  order 
that. 

Compound  Sentences 

Sentences  that  are  used  together  to  form  a  piece 
of  discourse  express  coordinate1  and  independent 
thoughts.  Some  relation  should  exist  between  the 
thoughts,  however,  or  the  sentences  should  not  be 
used  together.  Sometimes  two  or  more  coordinate 
independent  thoughts  are  so  closely  related  that 
they  are  expressed  by  one  sentence.  A  sentence 

1 1.e.  of  equal  rank. 


318  RULES   IN   GRAMMAR 

which  expresses  two  or  more  coordinate  independ- 
ent thoughts  is  said  to  be  compound,  and  the  clauses 
that  express  the  coordinate  thoughts  are  called  co- 
ordinate independent  clauses.  The  sentence,  The 
man  is  honest,  but  he  is  careless,  is  compound,  and 
the  expressions,  The  man  is  honest,  and  he  is  care- 
less, are  coordinate  independent  clauses. 

The  conjunctions  that  may  be  used  in  compound 
sentences  to  express  the  relation  between  the  co- 
ordinate independent  thoughts,  may  be  arranged 
in  four  groups  :  first,  and,  also,  besides,  moreover, 
furthermore,  both  —  and,  etc. ;  second,  but,  however, 
nevertheless,  yet,  still,  etc.;  third,  or,  nor,  either  — 
or,  neither  —  nor,  otherwise,  etc.  ;  fourth,  therefore, 
for,  consequently,  hence,  accordingly,  so,  thus,  etc. 

Simple  Sentences 

If  a  thought  is  not  dependent  and  is  not  closely 
related  to  another  thought,  it  may  be  expressed 

alone  by  a  simple  sentence ;  e.g.  He  is  honest. 

• 

The  Law  of  Parallel  Construction 

A  principle  of  coordination,  sometimes  called  the 
law  of  parallel  construction,  requires  that  coordinate 
thoughts  or  coordinate  thought  elements  should  be 
expressed  by  coordinate  sentences  (or  clauses)  or  by 
coordinate  sentence  parts.  This  law  also  implies 
the  converse :  Thoughts  or  thought  elements  that 
are  not  coordinate  should  not  be  expressed  by  coor- 
dinate sentences  or  by  coordinate  sentence  parts. 


5<5)  COORDINATION  AND   SUBORDINATION  319 

Unwarranted  Subordination 

56.  Coordinate  independent  thoughts  should  be 
expressed  by  coordinate  independent  clauses  or  by 
coordinate  independent  sentences.  An  independent 
thought  should  not  be  expressed  as  though  it  were 
dependent. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  I  walked  rapidly  for  three  or  four  miles,  when, 
being  discouraged,  I  decided  to  go  home. 

Correct:  I  walked  rapidly  for  three  or  four  miles,  and 
then,  being  discouraged,  I  decided  to  go  home ;  or,  I  walked 
rapidly  for  three  or  four  miles.  Then,  being  discouraged, 
I  decided  to  go  home. 

NOTE.  —  The  second  clause  does  not  tell  the  time  of  the 
walking.  It  expresses  an  additional  independent  thought. 

Incorrect :  I  was  told  to  wait,  which  I  did. 

Correct :  I  was  told  to  wait,  and  I  waited. 

NOTE. — The  clause,  "which  I  did/'  is  not  an  adjective 
modifier  of  any  word  in  the  principal  clause.  It  expresses 
an  additional  independent  thought.  See  36  b. 

a.  The  "  and  which  "  construction :  Avoid  the 
use  of  such  double  connectives  as  and  which  and 
but  which. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect:  Near  the  river  were  swamps  full  of  coarse 
grass,  and  over  which  the  fog  of  the  early  morning  was  still 
resting. 

Correct :  Near  the  river  were  swamps  full  of  coarse  grass, 
and  over  them  the  fog  of  the  early  morning  was  still  resting ; 
or,  Near  the  river  were  swamps  full  of  coarse  grass,  over 
which  the  fog  of  the  early  morning  was  still  resting. 


320  RULES   IN   GRAMMAR  (56-58 

NOTE.  —  And  indicates  that  the  relation  between  the 
thoughts  is  coordinate,  and  which>  that  it  is  subordinate. 
Of  course,  it  cannot  be  both. 

Unwarranted  Coordination 

57.  Thoughts  that  are  not  coordinate  should  not 
be  expressed  by  clauses  or  sentences  that  are  coor- 
dinate.    A  dependent   thought  should  not  be  ex- 
pressed as  though  it  were  independent. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  The  breeze  increased  until  it  became  a  gale. 
The  mighty  power  of  which  made  the  great  trees  sway  and 
bend. 

Correct:  The  breeze  increased  until  it  became  a  gale,  the 
mighty  power  of  which  made  the  great  trees  sway  and  bend. 

Reversed  Sentence  Structure 

58.  A  dependent  thought  is  sometimes  incorrectly 
expressed  as  though  it  were  the  principal  thought ; 
and  the  principal  thought,  as  though  it  were  de- 
pendent.    This   error  frequently  occurs  with  the 
connectives  when,  until,  and  before. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  We  started  for  home,  when  to  our  great  con- 
sternation we  found  we  were  lost. 

We  had  not  gone  far  before  we  saw  a  large  dog  in  the 
road. 

Correct :  When  ice  started  for  home,  to  our  great  consterna- 
tion we  found  we  were  lost. 

Before  toe  had  gone  far,  we  saw  a  large  dog  in  the  road ; 
or,  When  ive  had  gone  but  a  short  distance,  we  saw  a  large  dog 
in  the  road. 


5p)  COORDINATION  AND   SUBORDINATION  321 

Compound  Sentences  Unwarranted 

59.  Avoid  compound  sentences  that  are  awkward 
or  loosely  constructed. 

a.  Two  or  more  coordinate  independent  thoughts 
should  not  be  expressed  together  in  one  compound 
sentence   unless   their   subject    matter    is   closely 
related. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect:  Thomas  Malory's  Le  Morte  D' Arthur  was 
written  in  1485,  and  I  do  not  think  it  so  interesting  as  Ten- 
nyson's Idylls  of  the  King. 

Correct:  Thomas  Malory's  Le  Morte  D' Arthur  was 
written  in  1485.  I  do  not  think  it  so  interesting  as  Tenny- 
son's Idylls  oftheKing. 

b.  Avoid  long,  loosely  constructed  compound  sen- 
tences of  many  members. 

NOTE. —  Children  sometimes  tell  a  story  in  one  compound 
sentence,  the  members  of  which  are  connected  by  the  con- 
junction and.  Students  should  be  careful  to  subordinate 
dependent  thoughts,  and  to  combine  in  compound  sentences 
only  those  thoughts  that  are  most  closely  related. 

Loosely  constructed:  The  log  raised  one  end  of  the  raft, 
and  I  was  thrown  into  the  water,  and  my  foot  was  caught 
between  two  boards  of  the  raft  when  I  fell,  and  I  was  not 
able  to  free  myself. 

Better  construction :  The  log  raised  one  end  of  the  raft  and 
I  was  thrown  into  the  water.  When  I  fell,  my  foot  was 
caught  between  two  boards  of  the  raft,  and  I  was  not  able  to 
free  myself. 


322  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (60 

Unwarranted  Simple  Sentence  Construction 

60.  Two  or  more  coordinate  independent  thoughts 
are  incorrectly  expressed  by  simple  sentences  when 
the  relation  between  them  is  very  close. 

Unwarranted  separation:  The  boy  studies  hard.  He 
does  not  learn  rapidly. 

Better  construction :  The  boy  studies  hard,  but  he  does 
not  learn  rapidly. 

NOTE. —  The  use  of  many  simple  sentences  in  a  piece  of 
discourse  is  likely  to  make  it  wordy  and  to  give  it  a  jolting 
movement. 

EXERCISES 

Correct  the  following  sentences  and  give  rea- 
sons. 

1.  I   had  not  gone  far  until  I  heard  my  name  called 
several  times. 

2.  I  knew   only  one  boy  in  the  schoolroom   which  I 
entered,  whom  I  soon  spied  out  and  took  a  seat  by  his  side. 

3.  Our  provisions  were  exhausted.     We  went  home. 

4.  I  was  called  to  the  teacher's  desk,  where  I  went,  sob- 
bing as  if  my  heart  would  break. 

5.  I  was  going  down  town  yesterday,  when  I  met  your 
brother. 

6.  We  invited  Miss  Smith,  another  of  the  teachers,  and 
who  lived  only  a  short  distance  from  our  house. 

7.  My  little  friend  invited  me  to  go  to  her  play  room, 
which  I  did. 

8.  When  Uncle  Tom  comes  to  visit  us,  we  have  chocolate 
cake  for  supper,  and  he  was  a  soldier  in  the  Civil  War. 

9.  We  had  not  waited  long  before  Joe  came  with  the 
bridle. 

10.  The  house  was  little.  It  was  old  and  weather-beaten. 
It  was  inhabited  only  by  owls  and  bats. 


6l)  COORDINATION  AND   SUBORDINATION  323 

11.  Suddenly  I  came  to  a  place  where  the  ice  was  not 
solid,  which  broke  with  my  weight. 

12.  In   the   yard   stood    an    old,  whitewashed  cottage. 
The  dark  outline  of  which  could  be  seen  but  indistinctly 
beneath  the  tall  trees. 

13.  The  door  stood  partly  ajar,  through  which  the  moon- 
beams stole. 

14.  The  cloud  rose  slowly  and  hid  the  sun,  after  which 
it  took  a  darker  hue. 

15.  She  had  eyes  that  were  bright  and  unwavering,  and 
which  seemed  to  take  in  everything  at  a  glance. 

16.  We  had  not  read  far  until  we  thought  we  heard  some 
one  coming. 

17.  I  asked  him  to  go,  which  he  did. 

COORDINATION    AND     SUBORDINATION    OF    THOUGHT 
ELEMENTS 

Indicate  Coordination  by  Sentence  Structure 

61.  Thought  elements  that  have  the  same  use  in 
the  composition  of  a  thought  should  be  expressed 
by  sentence  parts  similar  in  structure. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect:  We  liked  to  pop  corn  and  roasting  chestnuts 
over  the  fire. 

She  spent  her  time  at  theaters  and  gossiping  about  her 
neighbors. 

Correct :  We  liked  to  pop  corn  and  to  roast  chestnuts  over 
the  fire. 

She  spent  her  time  attending  theaters  and  gossiping  about 
her  neighbors. 

NOTE.  —  The  coordinate  parts  of  the  compound  modifier 
should  be  similar  in  structure. 


324  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (62 

Unwarranted  Coordination 

62.  Thought  elements  that  do  not  have  the  same 
use  in  the  composition  of  a  thought  should  not  be 
expressed  by  sentence  parts  similar  in  structure. 

a.  A  series  of   expressions  :  Thought  elements 
that  do  not  have  the  same  use  should  not  be  ex- 
pressed in  a  series. 

Examples : — 

Incorrect:  The  apples  were  large,  ripe,  juicy,  and  cost 
five  cents  each. 

Correct:  The  apples  were  large,  ripe,  and  juicy,  and 
cost  five  cents  each. 

NOTE. — Only  the  first  three  terms  are  predicate  adjectives 
after  the  verb  were. 

b.  A  thought   element  subordinate  to  another 
should  not  be  expressed  as  though  it  were  coordi- 
nate with  it. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect:  He  told  us  to  be  careful  and  not  to  get 
hurt. 

Correct:  He  told  us  to  be  careful  not  to  get  hurt;  or, 
He  told  us  to  be  careful  in  order  that  we  might  not  get 
hurt. 

NOTE.  —  He  told  us  to  do  only  one  thing. 

c.  Avoid  coordinating  incongruous  ideas. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect:  He  carried  a  large  umbrella  and  a  clear  con- 
science. 

Correct:  He  carried  a  large  umbrella.  His  conscience 
was  clear. 


dj,  64)     COORDINATION  AND  SUBORDINATION  325 

Unwarranted  Coordination  by  Ellipsis 

63.  There  should  be  no  ellipsis  of  a  word,  phrase, 
or  clause  if  the  ellipsis  causes  thought  elements  to 
seem  to  be  coordinate  when  they  are  not. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  He  spends  as  much  or  more  money  than  I. 

Bounce  will  be  lonesome  and  wonder  what  has  become  of 
his  playmate. 

Correct :  He  spends  as  much  money  as  I  or  more  (than  I 
spend). 

Bounce  will  be  lonesome  and  will  wonder  what  has  become 
of  his  playmate. 

NOTE. — The  expression,  "than  I,"  is  not  a  modifier  of 
both  the  words  much  and  more.  The  coordinate  thought 
elements  are  as  much  as  I  and  more  than  I. 

NOTE. —  The  expressions  lonesome  and  wonder  what  has  be- 
come of  his  playmate,  are  not  coordinate.  The  clauses  are 
coordinate. 

a.  There  should  be  no  ellipsis  of  a  modifier  that 
is  common  to  two  or  more  words  if  its  uses  are 
different.  (See  48.) 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  The  building  stood  facing  and  only  a  few  feet 
from  Main  Street. 

Correct :  The  building  stood  facing  Main  Street  and  only 
a  few  feet  from  it. 

NOTE. — The  construction  may  be  grammatically  correct, 
but  it  is  not  rhetorically  effective. 

Coordinate  Construction  with  Correlative  Conjunctions 

64.  The  parts  of  a  correlative  conjunction  (either 
—  or,    neither — nor,   both  —  and,   not   only  —  but 


326  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (64,  65 

also,  etc.)  should  be  followed  by  similar  sentence 
constructions. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect :  He  not  only  helped  me  but  also  my  brother. 
Correct :  He  helped  not  only  me  but  also  my  brother. 
He  not  only  helped  me  but  also  persuaded  others  to  do  so. 

Improper   Subordination 

65.  Sentences  should  be  so  constructed  as  to  show 
the  exact  use  of  every  subordinate  thought  element. 
Avoid  awkward  and  indefinite  constructions. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect:  The  city  has  many  institutions  of  learning 
that  would  be  of  great  value  to  the  student  to  know  some- 
thing about. 

Correct:  The  city  has  many  institutions  of  learning,  a 
knowledge  of  which  would  be  of  great  value  to  the  student. 

a.  Avoid  unwarranted  ellipsis  in  the  expression 
of  subordinate  thought  elements. 

Examples :  — 

Incorrect:  Their  manner  of  living  is  entirely  different 
from  other  people. 

He  was  almost  if  not  the  oldest  man  in  town. 

Correct :  Their  manner  of  living  is  entirely  different  from 
that  of  other  people. 

He  was  almost  the  oldest  man  in  town,  if  not  the  oldest. 

EXERCISES 

Correct  the  following  sentences  and  give  reasons. 

1.  We  want  you  to  be  sure  and  be  with  us. 

2.  Burns  lived  among  and  loved  such  scenes. 


COMPOUND  WORDS  327 

3.  We  began  rowing  and  to  watch  the  sky  anxiously. 

4.  The  picture  is  among  if  not  the  best  of  his  works  of^^ 
art. 

5.  Andrew  Jackson  was  a  man  who  either  made  ardent  Q^^ 
friends  or  bitter  enemies. 

6.  He  is  as  tall  if  not  taller  than  I. 

7.  I  promised  to  go  and  help  him. 

8.  I  am  a  high  school  graduate,  a  senior  in  Holton  Col- 
lege, and  have  had  one  year's  experience  as  teacher. 

9.  The  teacher  was  not  only  loved  by  the  pupils  but 
also  by  the  parents  of  the  pupils. 

10.  He  said  that  his  record  was  as  good  or  better  than 
mine. 

11.  She  promised  to  sing  and  that  she  would  play  on  the 
violin. 

12.  The  people  were  healthy,  prosperous,  contented,  and 
spent  much  of  their  time  in  the  fields. 

13.  Stevenson's  poems  express  simple  thoughts,  that  is, 
thoughts  that  are  similar  to  the  way  children  think. 

14.  The  postal  system  does  not  bring  enough  income  to 
pay  postmasters,  mail  clerks,  and  many  other  expenses. 

15.  We  ran  across  the  field  to  our  father  and  calling  foi 
him  at  every  breath. 

COMPOUND  WORDS 

The  printer  of  to-day  is  perplexed  to  know  how 
to  form  compound  words,  much  as  Chaucer  was 
perplexed  to  know  what  word-forms  to  choose.  So 
far  as  word-compounding  is  concerned,  our  language 
is  in  a  state  of  rapid  change  and  growth.  When  a 
student  is  in  doubt  how  to  write  a  compound  word 
he  should  consult  a  reputable  dictionary ;  remem- 
bering, however,  that  no  dictionary  is  entirely  con- 


328  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR 

sistent  in  its  method  of  word-compounding,  and 
that  no  two  dictionaries  agree  entirely  in  their 
selection  of  compound  forms. 

Most  of  our  words  of  more  than  one  syllable  are 
of  compound  origin.  Suffixes  and  prefixes  are 
remnants  of  words  once  used  in  forming  com- 
pounds. When  two  modern  words  are  used  to 
express  one  idea,  the  compositor  must  decide  how 
the  compound  is  to  be  printed.  Shall  it  be  a  two- 
word  compound,  a  hyphened  compound,  or  a  solid 
compound?  Sometimes  compositors  do  not  agree  ; 
e.g.  one  reputable  dictionary  gives  toll  gate;  an- 
other, toll-gate;  and  a  third,  tollgate. 

NOTE.  —  In  the  "New  International"  -dictionary  the 
parts  of  a  hyphened  compound  are  separated  by  a  hyphen 
twice  as  long  as  that  used  between  syllables.  In  the 
"  Standard  "  dictionary  two  oblique  parallel  lines  are  used. 

General  Theory 

As  a  general  theory  of  word-compounding,  we 
may  say  that  when  two  words  are  used  together  to 
express  one  idea,  they  are  drawn  more  closely 
together  by  the  use  of  the  hyphen  ;  when  the  word 
is  so  commonly  used  that  the  meaning  of  the  com- 
ponent parts  is  no  longer  thought  of,  the  compound 
is  unhyphenated.  This  principle  explains  the  his- 
tory of  such  words  as  base  ball  (a  game  with  bases), 
base-ball,  baseball ;  fire  place  (a  place  for  fire),  fire- 
place, fireplace  ;  news  paper,  news-paper,  newspaper; 
barn  yard,  barn-yard,  barnyard,  etc. 


66-68)  COMPOUND   WORDS  329 

General  Tendency 

The  general  tendency  in  Modern  English  is  to 
avoid  the  hyphened  compound,  especially  when 
the  component  parts  are  long.  However,  the  hy- 
phen is  sometimes  necessary  to  prevent  confusion, 
and  custom  demands  that  it  should  be  used  in 
many  places. 

Some  Principles 

66.  The  hyphen  should  be  used  in  writing  frac- 
tions, compound  numerals  below  one  hundred,  and 
compounds  containing  numerals ;  e.g.  three-fourths, 
two  hundred  twenty-seven,  two-word  compounds. 

67.  The  hyphen  should  be  used  to  distinguish 
words  similar  in  spelling  but  different  in  meaning 
and  pronunciation  ;  e.g.  re-collect,  recollect  ;  re-cover, 
recover ;    re-form,    reform.     The    hyphen   is   also 
sometimes  used  in  place  of  the  diaeresis  to  separate 
two  vowels  that  are   not   to   be   pronounced   to- 
gether ;  e.g.  re'elect  or  re-elect,  coordinate  or  co-ordi- 
nate, preengage  or  pre-engage. 

68.  The  hyphen  is  usually  used  when  an  adjec- 
tive is  compounded  with  a  participle  unless  the  com- 
pound has  been  so  much  used  that  the  component 
parts  are  forgotten.     Adverbs  in  ly  and  participles 
should  not  form  hyphened  or  solid  compounds. 

Examples  :  — 

Old-fashioned,  white-haired,  dark-eyed,  good-natured, 
queer-looking,  tight-fitting,  barefooted.  Newly  married, 
hastily  written. 


330  RULES  IN  GRAMMAR  (tfp,  70 

69.  Especial  attention  is  called  to  the  following 
forms :  — 

anything  (general)  any  thing  (particular) 

anybody  each  other 

downstairs  (location)  down  stairs  (down  the  stairs) 

everything  (general)  every  thing  (particular) 

indeed  in  front 

instead  in  order 

nothing  (general)  no  thing  (particular) 

one  (any  one,  every  one,  no      some  thing  (particular) 

one,  some  one,  etc.)  second  base  (etc.) 

something  (general)  so  that 

somewhat  on  top  (etc.) 

wherever  within 

NOTE.  —  The  words  any,  each,  every,  and  no  may  be  used 
in  solid  compounds  when  they  are  used  in  a  general  sense 
to  refer  indefinitely  to  the  members  of  a  group ;  e.g.  Every- 
thing was  destroyed  by  fire.  However,  these  words  should 
be  used  separately  when  they  are  used  as  modifiers  in  the 
particular  sense  of  reference  to  the  individuals  of  a  group ; 
e.y.  Every  thing  was  in  its  proper  place. 

NOTE. —  Most  good  writers  do  not  use  the  word  one  as  a 
member  of  a  hyphened  or  solid  compound. 

70.  The  following   are    the    preferred  forms  of 
some  compounds  that  the  student  will  have  occa- 
sion to  use  frequently  :  — 

(the)  afternoon  apple  tree  (etc.)  barn  door 

any  more  armchair  barnyard 

any  one  back  door  baseball 

anything  (see  69)  background  beehive 

anywhere  barefooted 


7o) 


COMPOUND  WORDS 


331 


blackberry 

hillside 

postman 

blackbird 

himself  (etc.) 

postmaster 

blackboard 

however 

post  office 

bookcase 

in  order 

railroad 

camp  fire 

inside 

raindrop 

cast-off  (adj.) 

katydid 

sawmill 

childlike 

lamplight 

scarecrow 

churchyard 

*.  .  .  like 

school  boy 

cobweb 

midnight 

school  children 

copy  book 

midwinter 

school  days 

dining  room 

mocking  bird 

schoolhouse 

do  not 

moonlight 

schoolroom 

doorbell 

near  by  (adv.) 

school-teacher 

doorstep 

nevertheless 

self-respect  (etc.) 

doorway 

newsboy 

shotgun 

dooryard 

newspaper 

somewhat 

driveway 

northeast  (etc.) 

spinning  wheel 

eyebrows 

notwithstanding 

stairway 

farmhouse 

old-fashioned 

storekeeper 

farmyard 

outside 

street  car) 

fireflies 

overalls 

sunbeam 

fireplace 

overcareful 

sun  bonnet 

first  base  (etc.) 

overcast 

Sunday  school 

fisherman 

overhead 

sunrise 

footstep 

overhung 

sunset 

forehead 

overjoyed 

sunshine 

good-by 

passers-by 

thereby 

good  night 

pitchfork 

therefore 

grandfather 

playground 

to-day 

graveyard 

playhouse 

tombstone 

haystack 

policeman 

to-morrow 

"hide  and  seek" 

pop  corn 

toothache 

*  NOTE.  —  ...  like,  solid  except  in  unusual  compounds 
and  when  following  the  letter  I  •  e.g.  childlike,  bell-like. 


332  RULES   IN  DICTION  (70-72 

tree  top  whitewashed  withstand 

water  lily  windmill  worn-out  (adj.) 

whippoorwill  within  (etc.)  yourself  (etc.) 

DICTION 

The  expression,  "  A  person's  diction,"  means  his 
choice  and  use  of  words.  The  study  of  diction 
treats  of  the  meaning  and  application  of  words. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  first  course  in  composi- 
tion, students  should  guard  against  the  use  of  poetic 
and  conventional  diction.  The  idea  that  their 
themes  should  contain  lofty  thought,  expressed  in 
high-sounding  phrases  will  retard  all  real  progress, 
for  the  composition  coarse  should  be,  primarily,  a 
drill  in  clear  and  unified  thinking.  The  themes 
should  contain  the  students'  best  every-day  thought; 
such  thought  as  they  would  use  in  addressing  any 
well  educated  person.  The  diction  should  be  that 
of  dignified,  sincere,  every-day  prose,  avoiding  all 
colloquial,  vulgar  and  slang  words  and  phrases. 

Poetic  Words 

71.  Such  poetic  words  as  the  following  should  be 
avoided  in  students'  themes :   O'er,  'neath,  oft,  oft- 
times,  morn,  eve,  maid,  maiden,  damsel,  vale,  lea, 
dell,  cot  (for  cottage). 

Conventional  Expressions 

72.  Avoid   worn    and   conventional   words   and 
phrases.     They  are  weak,  and  they  often  suggest 
affectation  and  pompousness. 


72-74)  DICTION  333 

Examples :  — 

A .  youth  of  seventeen  sum-  Winging  its  way. 

mers.  Wended  his  way. 

Hair  whitened  by  the  frost  Old  Sol. 

of  many  winters.  Little  tots. 

Silence  reigned  supreme.  Pearly  teeth. 

Night    dropped    her    sable  Flaxen  hair. 

curtain.  Alabaster  brow, 

Tripped  the  light  fantastic.  The  fair  sex. 

Made  a  beautiful  picture.  The  weaker  sex. 

In  all  its  glory.  Gently  wafted. 

Colloquial  Expressions 

73.  Colloquial  expressions  are  those  which  are 
used  in  informal  conversation  but  avoided  by  edu- 
cated people  in  dignified  discourse.     They  should 
not  occur  in  students'  themes,  except  in  a  direct 
quotation. 

Examples :  — 

Don't,  couldn't,  etc.,  A  nice  day,  Plenty  of  time,  A  lot  of 
trouble,  In  a  bad  fix.  To  fix  the  watch,  I  guess  you  are  right, 
Your  intention  is  all  right,  Our  folks,  A  hustler,  A  cute  trick, 
Gumption,  To  boom  a  town,  A  boom  in  prices,  Chum. 

Vulgarisms 

74.  Vulgarisms  are  expressions  offensive  to  good 
taste.     The  word  vulgar  is  properly  applied  to  all 
profane  and  obscene  language,  to  most  slang  ex- 
pressions, and  to  many  words,  not  reputable,  that 
characterize  the  language  of  the  uneducated.     The 
following  are  some  vulgarisms  of  the  uneducated. 


334  RULES  IN  DICTION  (74~75 

Ain't,  Busted,  Tote,  Sort  of  (adv.),  Kind  of  (adv.),  Back  a 
letter,  Pants,  Seldom  or  ever,  I  s'pose,  To  own  up,  Right 
(very),  Directly  (as  soon  as),  Right  smart. 

Repetition  of  Words 

75.  The  student  should  avoid  using  a  word  or 
phrase  so  often  that  the  repetition  becomes  monoto- 
nous. Repetition  may  be  avoided  by  the  use  of  a 
pronoun,  a  pronominal  adjective,  or  a  synonym,  or 
by  a  change  in  sentence  construction. 


DEFINITIONS   IN  DICTION 

We  should  use  words  that  are  reputable,  national, 
and  present ;  that  is,  we  should  choose  words  that 
are  recognized  as  good  by  educated  people,  words 
that  are  in  good  usage  throughout  the  nation,  and 
words  that  are  in  good  usage  at  the  present  time. 

Barbarisms.  Barbarisms  are  words  or  phrases 
that  are  not  reputable  or  not  national  or  not  in 
present  use ;  e.g.  vulgarisms,  foreign  words,  and 
obsolete  words. 

Vulgarisms.     (See  Rule  74.) 

Colloquialisms.  Colloquialisms  are  words  and 
phrases  used  in  informal  conversation  but  avoided 
in  dignified  discourse.  (See  Rule  73.) 

Slang.  The  word  slang  is  hard  to  define  be- 
cause it  is  so  new  that  its  exact  meaning  has  not 
been  definitely  fixed.  Usually  the  word  slang  de- 
notes popular  expressions  that  are  recognized 
(usually  by  those  who  use  them)  as  not  reputable, 
either  because  of  their  nature  or  because  of  the 
way  in  which  they  are  used.  Often  an  expression, 
good  when  properly  used,  is  so  much  overused  and 
misused  that  it  becomes  vulgar  slang.  The  ex- 
pressions "  kidding  "  and  "  talking  through  his  hat " 
are  examples  of  vulgar  expressions  that  are  recog- 

335 


336  DEFINITIONS  IN  DICTION 

nized  as  slang  because  of  their  nature.  The  ex- 
pressions "  fierce  "  and  "  perfectly  lovely "  are 
examples  of  expressions  that  become  slang  when 
they  are  used  in  a  way  that  is  recognized  as  not 
reputable,  as  in  the  sentences,  "  This  lesson  is  some- 
thing fierce/'  and  "  It  was  a  perfectly  lovely  steak." 

Sometimes  the  word  slang  is  applied  to  the 
jargon  of  a  particular  class  of  people  ;  for  example, 
"  thieves'  slang,"  "  sailors'  slang,"  "  college  slang," 
"baseball  slang,"  etc.  Occasionally  such  slang 
words  attain  to  the  dignity  of  technical  words  and 
are  to  be  accepted  in  certain  relations ;  thus,  the  ex- 
pression "  muffed  the  ball  "  may  be  permissible  in 
an  account  of  a  ball  game. 

Americanisms  are  expressions  that  are  recognized 
as  good  in  America  but  not  recognized  as  good  in 
(&reat  Britain. 

Localisms,  or  provincialisms,  are  expressions  that 
are  peculiar  to  a  particular  part  of  the  country ; 
for  example,  "  tote  "  is  a  localism  of  the  Southern 
states. 

Obsolete  Words.  Obsolete,  or  archaic  words  are 
words  that  have  gone  out  of  good  use. 

Obsolescent  words  are  words  that  are  going  out 
of  good  use. 

Newly  coined  words  are  words  that  have  appeared 
but  recently  in  the  language.  Some  newly  coined 
words,  especially  scientific  terms,  will  become  rep- 
utable in  the  future. 


DEFINITIONS   IN  DICTION  337 

Improprieties  are  expressions,  good  when  prop- 
erly used,  that  are  unintentionally  applied  in  im- 
proper ways.  There  are  obvious  improprieties  in 
the  colored  missionary's  appeal :  "  You  rich  white 
folks  should  look  down  from  your  hieroglyphics 
and  take  pity  on  the  commiseration  of  the  poor 
African  people." 

Solecisms  are  ungrammatical  phrases  and  sen- 
tences. 

Synonyms  are  words  that  express  similar  ideas. 
Theoretically,  no  two  words  express  exactly  the 
same  idea,  but  the  meaning  of  a  word  may  some- 
times be  explained  in  a  general  way  by  the  use  of 
a  synonym.  Some  synonyms  of  the  word  abuse  are 
harm,  wrong,  damage,  misuse,  injure,  and  impose 
upon. 

Antonyms  are  words  that  express  opposite  ideas. 
Some  antonyms  of  the  word  abuse  are  protect,  shield, 
benefit,  care  for,  said  favor. 

Homonyms  are  words  that  are  similar  in  sound 
but  different  in  meaning.  Bow  is  a  homonym  of 
bough,  and  the  verb  bear  is  a  homonym  of  the  noun 
bear. 

Ellipsis.  An  ellipsis  is  the  omission  of  a  word 
or  of  a  group  of  words  essential  to  the  grammatical 
structure  of  a  sentence.  An  ellipsis  is  usually  not 
to  be  regarded  as  an  error  when  the  meaning  of 
the  sentence  is  clear  without  the  word  or  words ; 
e.cj.  This  is  the  book  [that]  I  bought. 


338  DEFINITIONS  IN  DICTION 

Redundancy.  A  redundant  expression  is  a  word 
or  group  of  words  that  is  superfluous.  Redundant 
expressions  are  of  several  kinds,  the  most  common 
of  which  are :  pleonasm,  tautology,  verbosity,  and 
prolixity. 

Pleonasm.  Pleonasm  is  the  use  of  words  not 
necessary  to  express  the  thought  of  the  sentence ; 
e.g.  A  widow  woman;  The  sun  was  rising  in  the 
east. 

Tautology.  Tautology  is  the  unnecessary  repeti- 
tion of  an  idea;  e.g.  They  retreated  and  went 
back;  He  wrote  an  autobiography  of  his  life. 

Verbosity.  Verbosity  means  wordiness.  Some- 
times twenty  words  are  used  to  express  a  thought 
that  could  be  expressed  by  ten  words  if  the  sentence 
were  recast.  Such  a  sentence  is  verbose,  though 
it  may  not  contain  pleonasm.  Example :  There 
were  ten  men  that  were  in  the  room.  (Ten  men 
were  in  the  room.) 

Prolixity.  Prolixity  is  an  excessive  use  of  de- 
tails. 


GLOSSARY   OF   MISUSED   WORDS  AND   PHRASES 

Above  —  more  than.  Above  should  not  be  used  with  words 
denoting  quantity  or  number,  as  in  the  sentence,  "There 
were  above  twenty  present."  Say,  "  More  than  twenty 
were  present." 

To  accept  —  to  except.  To  accept  means  to  receive.  To  ex- 
cept means  to  exclude,  to  make  an  exception.  I  accept  a 
present.  I  approve  of  all  that  has  been  done  and  ex- 
cept nothing. 

Accept  of.     Pleonasm.     Say,  "  Accept." 

Ain't.     Vulgarism.     Say,  "Am  not." 

Alike.  Alike  implies  a  comparison  of  two  or  more.  It  is 
incorrect  to  say,  "He  treats  every  one  alike."  Say, 
"  He  treats  all  alike." 

All  the  farther.  A  vulgarism,  probably  derived  from  all  the 
distance.  Say,  "This  is  as  far  as  I  have  gone." 

Alright.  Incorrect  orthography  for  all  right.  The  expres- 
sion all  right  is  colloquial. 

Amid  (amidst)  —  among.  Both  words  mean  surrounded  by. 
Among  should  be  used  when  individual  persons  or  things 
surround.  Say,  "  Amid  the  smoke  "  ;  "  Among  the 
people." 

Among  —  between.  Among  denotes  relation  mutually  affect- 
ing more  than  two:  between  denotes  relation  affecting 
only  two.  Discord  exists  among  three  or  more,  and 
between  two. 

NOTE.  —  Correct:  "The  distance  between  the  men  in  the 
line  was  not  great."  (The  distance  is  between  any  two.) 

And  —  to.  Do  not  substitute  the  conjunction  and  for  the 
infinitive  sign  to.  Say,  "  Try  to  come."  (Not,  "  Try 
and  come.")  See  61  b. 

339 


34O  GLOSSARY  OF  MISUSED  WORDS 

And  etc.     Pleonasm.     Omit  and. 

Anywhere.     Orthographical  error.     Write,  "  Any  where." 

Anywheres.     Vulgarism.     Say,  "Anywhere." 

To  appreciate  highly.  Barbarism.  Appreciate  means  to  esti- 
mate the  value  of.  Say,  "  Appreciate,"  or  "Appreciate 
thoroughly." 

As  if  —  that.  Do  not  use  the  expression  as  if  as  an  expletive 
to  introduce  a  substantive  clause,  as  in  the  sentence, 
"  They  feel  as  if  they  are  friendless."  Say,  "  They 
feel  that  they  are  friendless." 

Beside  —  besides.  Modern  writers  favor  beside  as  a  preposi- 
tion with  the  meaning  at  the  side  of,  and  besides  as  a 
preposition  or  an  adverb  meaning  in  addition  to  or  more- 
over. Say,  "  He  stood  beside  me  " ;  "  Besides  this,  there 
is  another  reason." 

But  that  —  that.  But  that  should  not  be  used  as  an  expletive. 
Say,  "  I  do  not  doubt  that  he  will  come." 

Bunch  —  company  —  group.  The  noun  bunch  should  be 
applied  only  to  things  of  the  same  kind  growing  to- 
gether or  fastened  together ;  e.g.  A  bunch  of  flowers, 
A  bunch  of  grass.  There  is  some  authority  for  the 
expression,  "  A  bunch  of  ducks."  The  expression,  "  A 
bunch  of  cattle,"  is  a  localism.  The  expression  "A 
bunch  of  girls,"  is  a  vulgarism. 

To  calculate.     See  guess. 

Can  —  may.  Can  denotes  ability.  May  denotes  permission. 
Say,  "  Do  you  think  that  I  can  do  the  work  ?  "  ;  "  May 
I  go,  please  ?  " 

To  claim.  Claim  means  to  assert  ownership.  It  should  not 
be  made  synonymous  with  assert,  declare,  say,  etc. 

To  clerk.  The  verb  clerk  (to  work  as  a  clerk)  is  becom- 
ing reputable.  It  has  been  considered  as  a  colloqui- 
alism. 

Co-eds.     College  slang.     Say,  "  The  girls  of  the  school." 

Complected.    Yulgarism.     Say,  "She  is  fair  complexioned. " 


GLOSSARY  OF  MISUSED  WORDS  341 

Date.  The  word  date  is  vulgar  when  used  with  the  meaning 
engagement  or  appointment. 

Different  than,  Different  to.  Improprieties.  Say,  "Differ- 
ent from." 

Disremember.     A  localism.     Say,  "  Do  not  remember." 

To  emigrate  —  to  immigrate.  To  emigrate  means  to  go  from 
a  country  with  the  intention  of  residing  in  another 
country.  To  immigrate  means  to  enter  a  country  with 
the  intention  of  adopting  it  as  a  place  of  residence. 

Enthuse.  Not  yet  reputable  as  a  verb.  Say,  "  Arouse  to 
enthusiasm." 

Equal.  Equal  implies  a  comparison  of  two  or  more.  It  is 
incorrect  to  say,  "  Every  one  should  have  equal  oppor- 
tunities ".  Say,  "  All  should  have  equal  opportunities," 
or  "Every  one  should  have  equal  opportunities  with 
every  other  one." 

Equally  as  good  (large,  etc.).  Pleonasm.  Say,  "  Equally 
good." 

To  except.     See  to  accept. 

Except — unless.  Except  used  as  a  conj  unction  is  obsolescent. 
Say,  "  I  shall  not  go  unless  [not  except^  I  am  needed." 

To  expect.  Expect  should  refer  only  to  the  future.  It 
should  not  be  used  with  the  meaning  to  think,  to  sup- 
pose, or  to  suspect.  Say,  "  I  suppose  that  he  did  this." 

A  falls,  a  ways,  a  woods.  Not  grammatical.  Say,  "  The 
falls  were  ";  "A  waterfall  was  "  ;  "  He  was  a  long  way 
from  home." 

Farther — further.  Use  farther  with  the  meaning  greater 
distance;  further  with  the  meaning  additional.  Say, 
"  He  walked  farther  "  ;  "  There  is  nothing  further  to  be 
said." 

Fewer — less  (as  adjectives).  Fewer  should  be  used  with 
expressions  denoting  number :  less,  with  expressions 
denoting  quantity.  Say,  "  Fewer  classes "  ;  "  Less 
work." 


342  GLOSSARY  OF  MISUSED   WORDS 

First.     Say,  "  The  first  six  "  ;  not,  "  The  six  first." 

To  fix.     Colloquial  when  used  with  the  meaning  to  repair. 

Folks.  Folks  is  much  used  in  such  expressions  as  "  Young 
folks,"  "  His  folks,"  etc.  It  was  considered  colloquial, 
but  it  seems  to  be  becoming  reputable.  Many  good 
writers  still  avoid  it  in  dignified  discourse. 

Gent.     Vulgarism.     Say,  "  Gentleman." 

Got.  Often  used  indefinitely  and  unnecessarily;  e.g.  "He 
has  got  his  lesson."  Say,  "  He  has  prepared  his  lesson," 
or  "  He  has  his  lesson." 

Gotten.     Got  is  preferable. 

To  guess,  to  reckon,  to  calculate,  Colloquial  localisms  when 
used  with  the  meaning  to  think  or  to  suppose. 

Had  have.     A  vulgarism.     Say,  "  If  I  had  gone." 

Had  ought,  hadn't  ought.  Vulgarisms.  Say,  "Ought"; 
«  Ought  not." 

Here  —  there.  Here  means  in  this  place.  It  is  incorrectly 
used  in  narration  in  an  historical  present  sense  when 
such  a  construction  is  incongruous  ;  e.g.  "He  remained 
here  for  two  years  and  then  left  that  place."  Say, 
"  He  remained  there." 

House  —  home.  Home  denotes  a  dwelling  house  made  dear 
by  the  associations  of  family  life.  House,  a  broader 
term,  usually  denotes  a  building  inhabited  by  men  or 
lower  animals.  "To  the  traveler  a  hotel  is  not  a  home." 

Hung  —  hanged.     Use  hanged  with  the  meaning  executed. 

A  human.     Colloquial  as  a  noun.     Say,  "  A  human  being." 

In  —  into.  In  denotes  position  within.  Into  denotes  motion 
from  without  to  a  position  within.  "I  jump  from  the 
bank  into  the  water :  then  I  can  jump  in  the  water." 

Indecided.     Barbarism.     Say,  "Undecided." 

An  invite.     Slang.     Say,  "  An  invitation." 

Kind  of  —  somewhat,  rather.  The  expression  kind  of  is  a 
vulgarism  when  used  as  an  adverb.  Say,  "  I  am  some- 
what surprised." 


GLOSSARY  OF   MISUSED  WORDS 


343 


Later  on.     Pleonasm.     Say,  "  Later  in  the  evening." 

To  lay  —  to  lie.     Lay  is  transitive,  and  means  to  place.     Its 

parts  are  lay,  laid,  laid.     Lie  is  intransitive,  and  means 

to  recline.     Its  parts  are  lie,  lay,  lain.     Say,  "  I  laid  the 

book  on  the  table  and  there  it  lies." 
To  leave  —  to  let.     To  leave  is  a  vulgarism  when  used  with 

the  meaning  to  let,  to  permit.     Say,  "  Let  me  help  you  " ; 

"  Let  me  go." 
Less  —  fewer.     See  fewer. 
Lie.     See  lay. 
Like  —  that.     Like  is  a  vulgarism  when  substituted  for  the 

expletive  that.     Say,  "  It  seemed  to  him  that  (not  like) 

he  was  dreaming." 
Like  —  as.     Like  may  be  used  as  a  preposition,  but  it  should 

not  be  used  as  a  conjunctive  adverb.     Say,  "  He  looks 

like  me  "  ;  "  He  did  as  (not  like)  he  had  been  told  to  do." 
Like  —  as  if.     Like  is  a  vulgarism  when  substituted  for  the 

expression  as  if.     Say,  "  The  bird  acted  as  if  (not  like) 

it  were  hungry."     The  sentence  means,  "  The  bird  acted 

as  (not  like)  it  would  act  if  it  were  hungry."     If  you 

are  in  doubt  about  the  construction  of  such  a  sentence, 

supply  the  ellipsis. 
May.     See  can. 
Most  —  almost.     Most  is  a  vulgarism  when  used  as  an  adverb 

with   the  meaning  not   quite.     Say,    "The  house   was 

almost  covered  with  leaves." 
Most  all.     Vulgarism.     Say,    "Most    of    the    houses,"    or 

"  Almost  all  of  the  houses." 
Myself.     The  intensive  pronouns  myself,   himself,  etc.,  are 

incorrectly   used  when  they   are   substituted  for  the 

simple  pronouns  I,  me,  he,  him,  etc.     Say,  "  You  (not 

yourself)  and  your  friends  are  invited." 
Nearby   or   near-by   (adjective).     Colloquial,   though   much 

used   in   newspapers,  and   becoming   reputable.     "An 

adjacent  town,"  is  the  better  term. 


344  GLOSSARY  OF  MISUSED   WORDS 

Near  by  (adverb).     Pleonasm.     Say,  "  The  river  flowed  near 

(not  near  by). 
Near  by   or   near-by   (preposition).     Pleonasm.     Say,  "  He 

stood  near  (not  near  by)  the  door." 
Nice.     Nice  may  mean  delicate,  fine,  or  fastidious.     It  is  a 

colloquialism   when   used   to  mean  pleasing,   good,  or 

delightful.     Say,  "  A  beautiful  day." 

Observance  —  observation.     Observance  means  the  act  of  heed- 
ing a  law,  custom,  etc.     Say,  "  A  strict  observance  of  the 

rule  " ;  "  Observation  of  the  stars." 
Of.     A  vulgarism  when  used  with  the  auxiliaries  may,  might, 

could,  would,  and  should  as  a  substitute  for  have.     Say, 

"  Might  have  (not  of)  studied." 
One.     Most  good  writers  do  not  compound  the  word  one 

with  such  words  as  every,  any,  some,  and  each.     Write, 

"  Each  one,"  "  Some  one,"  etc. 
Only  —  except.     Only  should  not  be  used  as  a  preposition. 

Say,  "  Nothing  could  be  seen  except  (not  only)  a  dim 

light." 

Or  —  nor.     Say,  "  Either  —  or  " ;  "  Neither  —  nor." 
Overly.     Vulgarism.     Say,  "  The  apple  is  overripe." 
Pants.     Colloquial  and  vulgar.     Say,  "  Trousers." 
Party  —  person.     Party  is  used  in  contracts  and  in   legal 

writings  with  the  meaning  person  or  persons.     It  is  a 

vulgarism  when  used  with  this  meaning  in  other  kinds 

of  discourse.     Say,  "This   is   the   person    (not  party) 

whom  I  saw." 

Past  —  last.     Say,  "The  last  (not  past)  two  years." 
Per.     Per  should  be  used  only  with  Latin  words.     Say,  "  Per 

annum,"  or  "A  year." 

Phone.     Colloquial.     Say,  "Telephone,"  "Megaphone,"  etc. 
Photo.     Colloquial.     Say,  "Photograph." 
Picture  —  scene.     A  picture  is  a  representation,  drawn  or 

painted.     Say,  "  The  house  and  trees  made  a  beautiful 

scene  "  (not  picture),  or  "  They  were  beautiful." 


GLOSSARY  OF   MISUSED   WORDS  345 

Plenty.  Obsolete  as  an  adjective  and  vulgar  as  an  adverb. 
Reputable  only  as  a  noun.  Say,  "  Sweet  enough  "  (not 
plenty  sweet)  ;  "  Fruit  was  plentiful  "  (uot  plenty). 

Preventative.     Vulgarism.     Say,  "Preventive." 

Proven.  Proved  is  preferable.  Say,  "The  statement  has 
been  proved  false." 

Providing  —  provided.  Provided  may  be  used  as  a  conjunc- 
tion with  the  meaning  granted  that.  Providing  should 
not  be  substituted  for  the  conjunction  provided.  Say, 
"Your  undertaking  will  be  successful,  provided  (not 
providing)  you  get  the  help  that  you  expect." 

To  raise  —  to  rear.  Say,  "The  corn  was  raised";  "The 
cattle  were  raised  "  ;  "  The  children  were  reared." 

Real.  A  vulgarism  when  used  with  the  meaning  very  or  ex- 
tremely. Say,  "  The  day  was  extremely  (not  real)  warm." 

To  rise  —  to  raise.  Do  not  substitute  one  for  the  other. 
The  principal  parts  are  rise,  rose,  risen;  raise,  raised, 
raised.  Say,  "  The  river  had  risen  rapidly." 

Secondhanded.     Vulgarism.     Say,  "  Secondhand." 

To  set  —  to  sit.  Do  not  substitute  one  for  the  other.  The 
principal  parts  are  set,  set,  set;  and  sit,  sat,  sat.  Say, 
"  He  had  sat  there  an  hour  " ;  "  She  set  the  vase  on  the 
table  and  there  it  sits." 

So.  Avoid  an  indefinite  use  of  so.  Say,  "  The  discussion 
was  intensely  (not  so)  interesting " ;  "  The  discussion 
was  so  interesting  that  all  listened  attentively." 

So  - —  as ;  as  —  as.  Use  so  after  a  negative.  Say,  "  He  was 
not  so  tall  as  I " ;  "  He  was  as  tall  as  I." 

Some  —  somewhat.  Do  not  use  some  as  an  adverb.  Say, 
"  I  felt  somewhat  relieved." 

Sort  of.  A  vulgarism  when  used  as  an  adverb.  Say,  "I 
felt  somewhat  (not  sort  of)  tired." 

To  stop  —  to  stay,  to  remain.  The  intransitive  verb  stop 
means  to  halt.  We  stop  at  a  house  for  a  moment.  We 
stay  (or  remain)  there  for  a  week. 


346  GLOSSARY  OF   MISUSED   WORDS 

Such,  such  a.  Avoid  an  indefinite  use  of  the  expressions 
such  and  such  a.  Say,  "They  were  very  (not  such) 
beautiful  flowers  "  ;  "  They  were  such  beautiful  flowers 
that  all  stopped  to  admire  them.'' 

To  suicide.  Newly  coined  and  not  reputable.  Say,  "Com- 
mit suicide." 

To  suspicion.  Not  reputable.  Say,  "  To  suspect "  ;  "  I  sus- 
pected that  the  statement  was  false." 

Them.  A  pronoun,  not  an  adjective.  Say,  "  Those  (not 
them)  books." 

These.     Plural.     Say,  "  This  kind  "  ;  "  These  kinds." 

A  tough.     Noun.     Slang. 

Toward — towards.  Either  form  is  reputable.  Toward  is 
preferable. 

To  transpire.  To  transpire  may  mean  to  become  known.  It 
is  incorrectly  used  with  the  meaning  to  happen  or  to 
come  to  pass.  Say,  "  What  was  done  (not  what  tran- 
spired) then  will  never  be  known  "  ;  "  It  has  recently 
transpired  that  he  was  the  thief." 

Unbeknown.     Vulgarism.     Say,  "  Unknown." 

To  wait  on,  or  upon.  Correctly  used  with  the  meaning  to 
serne.  Say,  "  He  waited  for  (not  on)  his  friend "  (to 
arrive). 

Wander — Wonder.  Do  not  substitute  one  for  the  other. 
Say,  "  He  wandered  into  the  woods  " ;  "  He  wondered 
at  the  delay." 

Want  on,  in,  off,  out,  etc.  Vulgarisms.  Say,  "  I  wish  to  get 
on." 

A  ways.     See  falls. 

When.  Wlien  should  express  an  idea  of  time.  Say,  "A 
collision  is  a  clash  of  one  thing  against  another."  (Not, 
"A  collision  is  when  one  thing  clashes  against 
another.") 

When — then.  When  may  be  an  interrogative  adverb  or  a 
conjunctive  adverb.  It  should  not  be  used  as  a  simple 


GLOSSARY  OF  MISUSED   WORDS  347 

adverb  expressing  time,  as  in  the  sentence,  "All  was 

quiet  for  a  time  :  when  suddenly  a  great  uproar  arose. " 

Say,  "  All  was  quiet  for  a  time :  then  suddenly  a  great 

uproar  arose."     See  56. 
Where.     Wliere  should  express  an  idea  of  place.     Say,  "  I 

have  been  reading  in  the  paper  that  (not  where)  there 

was  an  earthquake  in  Mexico." 
A  woods.     Not  grammatical.    Say,  "  A  wood  was  "  ,•  "  The 

woods  were."     Not  much  used  in  the  singular. 


FIGURES   OF   SPEECH  AND   FORMS   OF 
ARRANGEMENT 

FIGURES   OF  SPEECH 

A  figure  of  speech  is  an  expression  that  is  inten- 
tionally used  with  a  different  meaning  from  the 
accepted  one. 

Each  word  has  one  meaning,  or  more.  We  use 
a  word  literally  when  we  make  it  signify  the  idea 
that  good  usage  has  given  to  it.  Sometimes,  how- 
ever, we  can  express  our  ideas  more  forcibly  or 
more  clearly  by  making  a  word  express  a  different 
idea ;  for  example,  "  Eule  with  an  iron  hand," 
may  be  the  most  forcible  expression  for  the  idea, 
"  Rule  with  firmness  and  harshness."  This  use  of 
words  with  a  meaning  that  is  not  literal  is  a  figura- 
tive use. 

Many  literal  meanings  that  words  now  have 
were  once  figurative.  In  the  development  of  races 
and  individuals,  new  ideas  are  gained,  and  the 
question  naturally  arises,  What  words  shall  be 
used  to  express  new  ideas  ?  One  race  may  borrow 
appropriate  words  from  another  race ;  the  indi- 
vidual may  find  appropriate  words  in  his  own 
language,  or  the  race  and  the  individual  may 
coin  new  words  to  express  their  new  ideas.  Often, 
however,  both  the  race  and  the  individual  express 
the  new  ideas  by  means  of  familiar  words ;  by  en- 

348 


FIGURES  OF  SPEECH  349 

larging  the  meaning  of  existing  words.  The 
growth  of  our  language  is  made  possible  by  this 
fact  that  an  additional  meaning  may  be  given  to  a 
word ;  for  instance,  formerly  the  word  leaf  was 
applied  exclusively  to  the  foliage  of  trees,  plants, 
etc. ;  then  it  was  used  to  designate  one  of  the  parts 
of  a  book ;  and  still  more  meanings  were  later  added 
to  the  word.  These  new  meanings  were  at  first 
figurative,  but  as  time  went  on,  they  came  through 
custom  to  have  a  purely  literal  significance. 
Holmes  gave  a  figurative  meaning  to  the  words 
leafy  tree,  and  spring  in  the  lines :  — 

" .  .  .  if  I  should  live  to  be 
The  last  leaf  upon  the  tree 
In  the  spring,  .  .  .  ." 

Simile.  A  simile,  or  comparison,  is  a  figure  of 
speech  in  which  one  thing  is  asserted  to  be  like 
another  which  it  resembles  in  some  way.  Similes 
are  usually  formed  by  the  use  of  such  words  as 
like,  as,  and  so,  and  by  the  use  of  adjectives  and 
adverbs  in  the  comparative  degree. 

Examples :  — 

1.  "  Their   lives   glide   on   like   rivers  that  water    the 
woodland." 

2.  Our  ship  was   "as  idle  as  a  painted   ship  upon   a 
painted  ocean." 

3.  "  Wisdom  is  more  precious  than  rubies." 

Metaphor.  A  metaphor  is  a  figure  of  speech  in 
which  one  thing  is  asserted  or  assumed  to  be 


350  FIGURES  OF  SPEECH 

another  thing  which  it  resembles  in  some  way. 
Often  the  thing  used  metaphorically  is  an  attribute 
or  an  act. 

Examples :  — 

1.  "  For  the  commandment  is  a  lamp ;    and  the  law  is 
light  5  and  reproofs  of  instruction  are  the  way  of  life." 

2.  "...  if  I  should  live  to  be  the  last  leaf  upon  the  tree 
in  the  spring.  ..." 

3.  "  Deep  rooted  evils  in  the  State  abound." 

4.  "  He  flew  to  our  aid." 

Personification.  Personification  is  a  figure  of 
speech  in  which  an  inanimate  object  or  an  abstract 
idea  is  represented  as  being  alive. 

Examples :  — 

1.  "  The  wind  whispered  in  the  tree  tops." 

2.  "  Forsake  not  wisdom  and  she  shall  preserve  thee." 

Metonymy.  Metonymy  is  a  figure  of  speech  in 
which  one  thing  is  represented  by  another,  not  be- 
cause of  a  resemblance,  but  •  because  the  one  thing 
is  so  associated  with  the  other  that  the  mind  will 
think  of  the  one  when  the  other  is  mentioned. 

Examples :  — 

1.  "  The  pen  (i.e.  literature)  is  mightier  than  the  sword  " 
(i.e.  war). 

2.  "  He  scorned  the  scepter  (i.e.  royal  power)  but  revered 
the  cross  "  (i.e.  the  Christian  religion). 

3.  He  studied  Shakespeare  (i.e.  the  writings  of  Shake- 
speare). 

NOTE.  —  The  word  synecdoche  has  been  used  by  some  to 
denote  that  kind  of  metonymy  which  represents  the  whole 


FORMS  OF  ARRANGEMENT  351 

of  a  thing  by  means  of  one  of  its  parts ;  e.g.  "  Busy  hands 
(i.e.  people)  were  toiling  at  the  looms." 

Apostrophe.  Apostrophe  is  a  figure  of  speech 
in  which  a  person  or  thing  that  is  absent  is  ad- 
dressed as  though  he  or  it  were  present. 

Examples :  — 

1.  "  Sleep,  soldiers,  sleep  in  honored  rest,   your  battle 
laurels  wearing." 

2.  "  Lift  up  your  heads,  0  ye  gates  ;  and  be  ye  lifted  up, 
ye  everlasting  doors." 

Allegory.  Though  allegory  is  not  a  figure  of 
speech,  it  is  a  form  of  narration  in  which  the 
characters  are  personifications.  Allegory  usually 
abounds  in  metaphors.  Spenser's  Faerie  Queene 
and  Bunyan's  Pilgrim  s  Progress  are  familiar  ex- 
amples. The  knight  in  an  allegory  may  person- 
ify the  church  ;  his  sword  may  symbolize  truth ; 
and  a  dragon  may  personify  selfishness.  Much  of 
the  pleasure  derived  from  reading  allegory  often 
comes  from  interpreting  the  meaning  of  the  per- 
sonifications and  the  metaphors. 

FORMS   OF  ARRANGEMENT 

Climax,  anticlimax,  and  antithesis  are  classified 
by  some  writers  as  figures  of  speech,  but  it  seems 
better  to  consider  them  merely  ways  of  arranging 
words,  phrases,  or  sentences  in  a  piece  of  discourse. 

Climax.  The  word  climax  is  derived  from  a 
Greek  word  meaning  a  ladder.  A  climax  is  a 


352  FORMS   OF  ARRANGEMENT 

series  of  expressions  arranged  in  the  order  of  in- 
creasing strength  or  importance. 

Example :  — 

Lincoln  recognized  worth  in  the  common  people ;  he 
loved  the  common  people ;  he  fought  for  the  common 
people  ;  and  he  died  for  the  common  people. 

Anticlimax.  An  anticlimax  is  a  series  of  expres- 
sions arranged  in  the  order  of  decreasing  strength 
or  importance.  Anticlimax  is  to  be  considered  an 
error  in  discourse  unless  it  is  used  purposely  to 
degrade  the  subject  or  to  produce  a  humorous 
effect. 

Example :  — 

"  The  western  sky  was  awe-inspiring,  wonderful,  and 
beautiful.  It  was  pleasing  because  of  its  many  tints  and 
shades  of  red  and  yellow." 

Antithesis.  An  antithesis,  or  contrast,  consists 
of  two  opposed  expressions  arranged  together.  The 
nature  of  each  expression  is  made  prominent  be- 
cause of  the  contrast. 

Examples  :  — 

"The  tongue  of  the  just  is  as  choice  silver:  the  heart  of 
the  wicked  is  of  little  worth." 

"  The  world  will  ever  bow  to  those  who  hold  principle 
above  policy,  truth  above  diplomacy,  and  right  above  con- 
sistency." 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES   OF   STYLE 

The  word  style,  as  it  is  applied  to  discourse, 
means  the  manner  in  which  the  thoughts  are  ex- 
pressed. The  word  is  sometimes  used 
incorrectly  to  mean  good  style,  much 
as  the  word  literature  is  sometimes  used  incorrectly 
to  mean  good  literature.  The  word  style  may  be 
applied  as  well  to  a  mode  of  writing  that  is  bad 
as  to  one  that  is  good ;  for  example,  we  may  with 
as  much  propriety  speak  of  a  verbose  style,  a 
cramped  style,  or  a  rambling  style  as  of  a  concise 
style,  a  spirited  style,  or  a  dignified  style. 

Most  people  understand  in  a  general  way  the 
meaning  of  such  words  as  humor,  pathos,  wit,  sar- 
casm, and  irony,  but  it  would  be  difficult  for  them 
to  explain  what  these  properties  of  style  are,  and 
to  tell  how  one  differs  from  the  other. 

Students  of  psychology  tell  us  that  thinking  is 
an  act  of  bringing  ideas  together  and  seeing  a 
relation,  either  of  agreement  or  of  disagreement, 
between  them.  The  mind  brings  together  the  ideas 
bird  and  fly  and  sees  a  relation  of  agreement  be- 
tween them.  This  is  a  complete  act  of  thinking, 
and  the  thought  is  expressed  in  the  sentence,  Birds 
fly.  Sometimes  the  mind  is  surprised  to  see  a 

353 


354  SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE 

relation  between  seemingly  incongruous  ideas  (i.e. 
between  ideas  that  seem  to  be  entirely  unrelated). 
The  words  wit,  humor,  pathos,  satire,  sarcasm,  and 
irony  denote  unusual  or  unexpected  associations 
of  ideas. 

Wit  is  a  property  of  style  that  arises  from  an  unex- 
pected association  of  incongruous  ideas,  accompanied 
by  a  feeling  of  amusement.  Usually 
wit  belongs  to  single  sentences  rather 
than  to  longer  pieces  of  discourse.  If  we  say  that 
a  piece  of  discourse  is  witty,  we  mean  that  it  con- 
tains many  witty  sentences,  each  one  of  which  sur- 
prises and  amuses  us  by  showing  us  an  unexpected 
point  of  view  or  relation.  When  Abraham  Lincoln 
was  asked  how  long  he  thought  a  man's  legs  should 
be,  he  replied  that  he  thought  they  should  be  long 
enough  to  reach  from  his  body  to  the  ground.  The 
wit  of  his  reply  arises  from  the  unexpected  sugges- 
tion that  the  length  of  a  man's  legs  could  be  any- 
thing but  long  enough  to  reach  from  his  body  to 
the  ground.  When  Mark  Twain  read  an  account 
of  his  own  death,  he  said  that  the  report  was 
grossly  exaggerated.  We  are  surprised  and  amused 
to  see  that  this  statement  is  true.  The  wit  arises 
from  the  unexpected  association  of  ideas. 

NOTE.  —  Excellent  discussions  of  wit  and  humor  may  be 
found  in  William  Hazlitt's  essay,  "  On  Wit  and  Humor/'  in 
The  English  Comic  Writers,  and  in  Leigh  Hunt's  essay,  "  On 
Wit  and  Humor." 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF   STYLE 


355 


Humor  is  the  property  of  style  that  arises  from 
an  association  of  incongruous  ideas,  accompanied  by  a 
feeling  of  good  will  and  amusement  or 

Humor 

pleasure.  Humor  usually  belongs  to 
paragraphs  and  longer  pieces  of  discourse  rather 
than  to  single  sentences.  Humor  is  a  steady  qual- 
ity, while  wit  is  a  sudden  flash.  The  incongruity 
from  which  humor  arises  is  usually  that  of  situa- 
tions ;  that  is,  a  character  is  placed  in  a  situation 
in  which  he  seems  to  be  out  of  place.  If  we  as- 
sociate the  idea  Darius  Green  with  the  idea  at- 
tempting to  fly,  we  have  humor,  for  the  ideas  are 
incongruous  and  they  are  accompanied  by  a  feeling 
of  good  will  and  amusement.  There  would  be  no 
humor  if  the  character  were  a  skilled  mechanic,  for 
the  situation  would  not  seem  to  be  incongruous ; 
and  there  would  be  no  humor  if  we  were  made  to 
feel  that  Darius  would  be  killed,  for  the  incongruity 
would  then  be  accompanied  by  a  feeling  of  sym- 
pathy rather  than  of  amusement.  If  we  bring  to- 
gether the  idea  a  pompous,  dignified  professor  and 
the  id&&  falling  on  a  muddy  street,  we  usually  have 
humor.  However,  the  association  would  not  result 
in  humor  if  the  professor  were  old  and  feeble,  and 
it  would  not  be  humor  if  the  professor  were  to  be 
seriously  injured.  Some  good  examples  of  humor 
are  Mark  Twain's  Innocents  Abroad;  Hale's  My 
Double,  and  How  He  Undid  Me  ;  Lamb's  Disserta- 
tion On  Roast  Pig  ;  and  Irving' s  Ichdbod  Crane. 


356  SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE 

Pathos  is  a  property  of  style  that  arises  from 
an  association  of  incongruous  ideas,  accompanied 

by    a    feeling    of    sympathy  or    pain. 

If  we  bring  together  the  idea  a  feeble 
old  prof essor  and  the  idea,  falling  on  a  muddy  street, 
we  have  pathos.  The  last  part  of  Eugene  Field's 
poem  "  Little  Boy  Blue  "  is  pathetic  because  it  as- 
sociates the  idea  Little  Boy  Blue  with  the  idea 
death.  We  feel  that  the  two  ideas  do  not  properly 
belong  together  and  the  association  of  the  ideas 
causes  us  pain.  Pathos  often  characterizes  an  en- 
tire discourse,  and  sometimes  humor  and  pathos 
both  appear  in  a  discourse,  one  following  the  other. 
Satire  is  the  property  of  style  that  arises  from 
an  association  of  incongruous  ideas,  accompanied  by 

a  feeling  of  disrespect  intended  to  make 

the  thing  satirized  appear  ridiculous. 
The  purpose  of  satire  is  to  'ridicule  folly  and  error 
in  individuals,  in  society,  and  in  institutions. 
When  satire  occurs  in  single  sentences  it  may  be 
considered  a  form  of  wit.  Often  the  chief  purpose 
of  a  piece  of  discourse  is  to  satirize  some  error  or 
folly  in  an  individual  or  in  society ;  for  example, 
most  fables  are  satirical  in  chief  purpose.  ^Esop 
satirized  the  weakness  of  men  who  are  willing  to 
sacrifice  principle  in  order  to  please  friends,  by 
comparing  such  men  with  the  man  with  two  wives, 
who  allowed  his  young  wife  to  pull  out  all  his  gray 
hairs,  that  he  might  seem  young,  and  his  old  wife 


SPECIAL  PROPERTIES   OF   STYLE  357 

to  pull  out  all  his  black  hairs,  that  he  might  seem 
old.  Swift,  in  Gulliver's  Travels,  satirized  little- 
ness and  meanness  in  men  by  comparing  men  with 
Lilliputians,  who  did  foolish  little  things  such  as 
were  being  done  in  England. 

Satire  and  humor  often  appear  together  and 
sometimes  they  are  hardly  to  be  distinguished. 
This  distinction,  however,  is  to  be  kept  in  mind  : 
Humor  laughs  with  the  thing  while  satire  laughs  at 
it  because  of  its  folly  or  error.  One  can  find  much 
satire  mixed  with  the  humor  in  Bale's  My  Double, 
and  How  He  Undid  Me,  for  it  is  evident  that 
Hale  is  laughing  at  the  lack  of  sincerity  and  good 
judgment  in  people. 

Sarcasm  is  the  property  of  style  that  arises  from 
an  association  of  incongruous  ideas,  accompanied  by 
a  feeling  of  scorn  or  contempt.  Sar- 

Sarcasm 

casm  usually  appears  in  single  sen- 
tences or  paragraphs  and  it  often  resembles  wit, 
but  its  purpose  is  not  so  much  to  amuse  as  it  is  to 
inflict  punishment.  The  judge  used  sarcasm  when 
he  said  to  the  prisoner,  "  You  seem  to  find  much 
pleasure  in  whipping  your  wife." 

Irony  is  a  kind  of  sarcasm  in  which  there  is  an 
incongruity  between  the  statement  and  the  mean- 
ing that  the  statement  is  intended  to 
have.     The  author  says  one  thing  and 
expects  the  hearer  to  understand  that  the  opposite 
thing  is  true.     Elijah  used  irony  when  he  said  to 


358  SPECIAL  PROPERTIES  OF  STYLE 

the  prophets  of  Baal  who  were  trying  to  call  Baal 
to  their  assistance  :  "  Cry  aloud  :  for  he  is  a  god ; 
either  he  is  talking,  or  he  is  pursuing,  or  he  is  on 
a  journey,  or  perad venture  he  sleepeth,  and  must 
be  awaked." 

Irony  has  sometimes  been  called  a  figure  of 
speech,  but  it  differs  from  the  figures  of  speech 
that  we  discussed  in  that  it  is  not  a  word  or 
phrase :  it  is  a  sentence  or  group  of  sentences. 


COMMON   ABBREVIATIONS   IN   GOOD   USE 


NOTE.  —  The  student  should  acquire  the  habit  of  consulting  the  dictionaiy  for  abbre- 
viations, derivation  of  words,  synonyms,  etc.    This  list  is  given  for  convenient  reference. 

A.B.  or  B.A.  =  Bachelor  of  Arts      Mile.  =  Miss    (French,    Matte- 


(Latin,  Artium  Raccalaureus). 
A.D.  =  in  the  year  of  our  Lord 

(Latin,  anno  Domini). 
a.m.  =  before  noon  (Latin,  ante 

meridiem). 

A.M.  =  Master  of  Arts, 
anon.  =  anonymous. 
B.C.  =  before  Christ. 
B.S.  =  Bachelor  of  Science. 
C.E.  =  civil  engineer. 
cf.  =  compare  (Latin,  confer). 
ch.  or  chap.  =  chapter. 
D.D.  =  Doctor  of  Divinity. 
e.g.  =  for  example  (Latin,  exem- 
pli gratia) . 
et  al.  =  and   others   (Latin,   et 

alii). 
etc.  =  and  so   forth  (Latin,  et 

cetera). 

ff.  =  and  the  following  (pages). 
Hon.  =  Honorable. 
ibid.  =  the    same    (author    or 

source) . 

i.e.  =  that  is  (Latin,  id  est). 
inst.  =  instant ;  i.e.  this  month. 
LL.D.  =  Doctor  of  Laws, 
m.  =  noon  (Latin,  meridies). 
M.C.  =  Member  of  Congress. 
Messrs.  =  (plural   of    Mister) 

(French,  Messieurs). 


moiselle). 
Mme.  =  Madam    (French,   M</- 

datue). 

M.P.  =  Member  of  Parliament. 
MS.  =  manuscript. 
MSS.  =  manuscripts. 
N.B.  =  note   well   (Latin,  nota 

bene). 

p.  =  page.    pp.  =  pages. 
p.p.  =  past  participle. 
Ph.D.  =  Doctor  of  Philosophy. 
p.m.  =  afternoon    (Latin,    post 

meridiem). 
pro  tern.  =  for  the  time  (Latin, 

pro  tempore). 
P.S.  =  postscript    (Latin,    post 

scriptum). 
q.v.  =  which   see   (Latin,  quod 

vide). 

R.R.  =  railroad. 
Rev.  =  Reverend. 
R.S.V.P.  =  answer,  if  you  please 

(French,    repondez    s'il    vous 

plait). 

ult.  =  ultimo ;    i.e.  last  month, 
vid.  =  see  (Latin,  vide). 
viz.  =  namely  (Latin,  videlicet). 
vol.  =  volume. 
vs.  =  against,  in  contrast  with 

(Latin,  versus). 


359 


GENERAL  DIRECTIONS 

FOR  WRITING  AND   CORRECTING  THEMES 

1.  Use  regular  composition  paper. 

NOTE  .  —  The  teacher,  should  select  heavy,  ruled  composition  paper  of 
a  uniform  size  and  shape  and  should  refuse  to  accept  themes  written 
upon  any  other  kind  of  paper.  Paper  ten  inches  long  and  eight  inches 
wide  is  good. 

2.  Use  black  ink  and  a  pen  heavy  enough  to  make  a  line 
that  will  not  tire  the  teacher's  eyes. 

3.  Write  on  only  one  side  of  the  paper. 

4.  Leave  a  margin  of  about  one  inch  at  the  left  side  of 
the  paper.     The  paragraph  margin  should  be  twice  as  broad 
as  the  margin. 

5.  Do  not  crowd  the  writing  at  the  right  edge  of  the 
paper,  and  do  not  leave  broad  spaces  at  the  right  side  of  the 
lines,  except  at  the  end  of  paragraphs.     If  a  word  is  divided 
at  the  end  of  a  line,  be  sure  to  divide  it  between  syllables 
and  to  use  the  hyphen. 

6.  Write  the  title  on  the  first  line  of  the  page  and  under- 
score it  with  three  continuous  straight  lines  or  with  one 
continuous  wave  line. 

7.  Leave  the  second  ruled  line  blank. 

8.  Begin  writing  at  the  paragraph  margin  of  the  third 
ruled  line. 

9.  If  the  teacher  so  instructs,  fold  the  paper  once  length- 
wise. 

10.  If  the  theme  is  folded,  indorse  it  on  the  outside  with 
your  name,  the  date,  the  name  of  the  class,  and  the  title  of 
the  theme ;  for  example  :  — 

360 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  THEME   CORRECTING  361 

Thomas  Mason 
September  22,  1914 
Composition  I  A 
The  Old  Engineer 

NOTE.  —  The  indorsement  should  be  placed  on  the  side  of  the  theme 
that  would  be  the  front  cover  if  the  folded  theme  were  considered  a 
book.  It  should  be  placed  near  the  top  of  the  paper. 

All  themes  should  be  composed  thoughtfully,  written 
neatly,  and  punctuated  carefully.  Hurried  and  careless 
theme  writing  harms  the  student  more  than  it  helps  him ; 
therefore  the  teacher  should  refuse  to  read  themes  that  are 
carelessly  written.  Every  period  should  be  a  round  dot; 
every  i  should  be  dotted  carefully ;  an  o  should  not  be  made 
like  an  a,  and  a  w  should  not  be  made  like  a  u. 

Themes  should  be  placed  on  the  teacher's  desk  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  recitation  period  of  the  day  on  which  they 
are  due.  Some  of  them  may  be  read  in  class  and  criticized 
by  the  students  and  the  teacher. 

THE  TEACHER'S  CORRECTIONS 

The  teacher  should  mark  the  themes  later  and  return 
them  to  the  students.  The  students  should  examine  the 
themes  that  are  returned,  and  correct  or  rewrite  them  if 
directed  to  do  so :  then  they  should  return  the  themes  to 
the  teacher  so  that  at  the  end  of  the  term  the  teacher  will 
have  from  each  student  all  of  the  themes  assigned,  written 
in  a  satisfactory  form. 

Of  course  the  teacher  will  choose  his  own  method  of 
correcting  themes.  The  following  marks  are  recommended. 
Usually  they  should  be  placed  in  the  margin  and  opposite 
the  error. 

Sp.  =  Incorrect  spelling. 

p.  =  Punctuation  :  needed,  not  needed,  or  incorrect, 
cap.  =  Use  a  capital  letter. 


362  DIRECTIONS  FOR  THEME   CORRECTING 

No  cap.  =  Bo  not  use  a  capital  letter. 
S.C.  =  Incorrect  sentence  construction. 
C.W.  =  Choice  of  words  is  not  good. 

F.  =  Form  is  not  good.     (This  includes  bad  penmanship, 

blots,  and  general  lack  of  neatness.) 

1"  =  Paragraph. 

No  IF  =  Do  not  begin  a  paragraph  here. 

ar.  =  Arrangement  not  good.  (Arrangement  of  words, 
phrases,  sentences,  or  paragraphs.) 

^  =  Combine.  (Combine  two  words  into  one,  or  two  sen- 
tences into  one.) 

\  =  Separate.  (Separate  parts  of  a  word  to  form  two  words, 
or  parts  of  a  sentence  to  form  two  sentences.) 

-  =  Use  a  hyphen. 

A  =  Insert  a  word,  phrase,  or  sentence. 
[]  =  Omit.     (In  the  teacher's  judgment,  the  word  or  words 
inclosed  in  brackets  should  be  omitted.) 

G.  =  Glossary  of  misused  words  and  phrases,  or  the  diction- 

ary. 

A  number  written  on  the  paper  refers  to  a  rule  of  capital- 
ization, punctuation,  or  sentence  structure,  given  in  Part 
III. 

*  =  Note.  .  The  teacher  may  use  an  asterisk  before  a  note 

to  indicate  that  it  is  to  be  copied  in  a  notebook.  The 
mark  *  S.  C.  may  be  used  to  indicate  that  the  sentence 
is  to  be  copied  in  the  notebook  in  both  the  incorrect 
and  the  correct  forms. 

STUDENT  CORRECTIONS 

Corrections  should  be  made  with  red  ink.  They  should 
be  made  between  the  lines  and  above  the  errors.  The  stu- 
dent should  not  erase  parts  of  his  theme  marked  incorrect, 
nor  should  he  erase  the  marks  of  the  teacher. 

The  teacher  may  give  the  students  some  general  directions 
for  correcting  themes,  but  always  the  student  should  try  to 


DIRECTIONS  FOR  THEME  CORRECTING  363 

use  good  judgment  in  making  corrections.  If  a  word  is 
misspelled,  it  should  be  written  in  correct  form  above  the 
error.  If  capitalization  is  incorrect,  the  entire  word  should 
be  written  in  correct  form  above  the  error.  If  a  sentence 
is  grammatically  incorrect,  the  error  may  perhaps  be  cor- 
rected by  changing  only  one  word.  If  words  are  inclosed 
in  brackets  by  the  teacher,  the  student  may  draw  a  red  line 
through  the  words  if  he  understands  why  they  should  be 
omitted.  If  the  arrangement  of  two  or  more  words  is  in- 
correct, the  student  may  draw  a  red  line  through  the  words 
and  insert  them  in  the  proper  place  by  the  use  of  the  caret ; 
but  if  a  phrase,  sentence,  or  paragraph  is  not  properly  ar- 
ranged, its  proper  place  may  be  indicated  by  the  use  of  an 
arrow.  The  beginning  of  a  paragraph  may  be  indicated  by 
the  paragraph  mark ;  and  if  a  paragraph  is  incorrectly  be- 
gun, the  student  may  draw  a  red  line  through  the  blank 
space. 

A  rewritten  theme  should  be  dated  the  same  as  the 
original  theme.  The  title  of  the  rewritten  theme  should  be 
underscored  with  red  ink. 

SUGGESTIONS    FOR   TEACHERS 

It  is  often  well  to  instruct  the  students  to  keep  a  com- 
position notebook.  This  book  may  contain  the  assignment, 
dated ;  misspelled  words  in  the  correct  form  ;  notes  dictated 
by  the  teacher;  incorrect  sentence  constructions  and  the 
corresponding  correct  forms  ;  and  other  material. 

The  teacher  may  find  it  convenient  to  place  a  mark  at 
the  top  of  the  first  page  of  each  theme  to  indicate  what  the 
student  is  to  do  with  the  theme.  The  following  letters  are 
suggested. 

A  =  Return  without  corrections. 

B  =  Correct  with  red  ink  and  return. 

C  =  Rewrite,  and  place  the  rewritten  theme  and  the 
original  theme  on  the  teacher's  desk. 


KEY  TO  RULES  IN   GRAMMAR  AND 
DICTION 


(This  key  is  intended  to  help  teachers  to  find  rules  when  they  mark 
themes.) 


CAPITALIZATION  (Rules  1-5) 

PAGE 

1.  First  words 265 

2.  Proper  names  and  proper  adjectives          ....  266 

3.  General  noun  with  proper  names 266 

4.  Titles,  initials,  and  abbreviations     .        .        .        .        .  267 

5.  Miscellaneous 268 


PUNCTUATION  (Rules  6-20) 

6.  The  period 270 

7.  Punctuation  between  the  members  of  a  compound  sen- 

tence        270 

8.  The  comma  between  clauses  :  special  uses  of  .         .        .  272 

a.  To  prevent  improper  coordination  ....  272 

b.  Before  the  conjunction  for        .....  272 

9.  Expressions  out  of  the  natural  position.     The  comma     .  273 

10.  Adjective  modifiers,  limiting  and  descriptive.     Punctua- 

tion of 273 

11.  A  series  of  expressions.     Punctuation  between  the  mem- 

bers of 274 

12.  A  series  of  expressions.     Punctuation  before   .        .        .  275 

13.  Introductory  and  absolute  constructions.     The  comma  .  276 

14.  Parenthetical  expressions.     Punctuation  of      ...  277 

15.  Ellipses,     The  comma 278 

364 


KEY  TO  RULES  365 

PAGE 

16.  Expressions  in  apposition.     The  comma  ....  278 

17.  Direct  address.     The  comma 278 

18.  Direct  quotations.     Punctuation  of  .        .        .        .        .  279 

19.  Exclamatory  expressions.     Punctuation  of      ...  281 

20.  Interrogative  expressions.     Punctuation  of      ...  282 


THE  VERB:    NUMBER  (Rules  21-25) 

21.  Every  sentence  should  have  a  principal  verb    .        .        .  285 

22.  Verb  should  agree  with  subject  in  number       .         .        .  286 

23.  Agreement  of  verb  with  a  compound  subject  .         .         .  287 

b.   Connectives  that  do  not  form  a  compound  subject  .  287 

24.  Agreement  of  verb  with  collective  nouns          .        .        .  288 

25.  Agreement  of  verb  after  or,  nor,  etc 288 


THE  VERB:    TENSE  (Rules  26-30) 

26.  Principal  parts  of  verbs 290 

27.  Use  tense  forms  consistent  with  the  context    .        .        .  292 

28.  Sequence  of  tenses  in  narrative  discourse          .         .         .  293 

29.  Present  tense  in  exposition 294 

30.  Infinitives;  The  tense  of 295 


THE  VERB:    MISCELLANEOUS  (Rules  31-35) 

31.  Shall  and  will 297 

a.  As  tense  signs  in  declarative  sentences     .         .         .  297 

b.  As  verbs  expressing  volition 297 

c.  In  indirect  quotations 298 

d.  In  questions 298 

32.  Should  and  would  (a,  b,  c,  and  d  as  in  31)         .         .         .  298 

33.  Irregular  uses  of  should  and  would    .....  300 

a.  In  conditional  clauses 300 

b.  Should  to  express  duty  or  propriety          .         .        .  300 

c.  Would  in  generalized  reminiscence  ....  300 

34.  Verbs  followed  by  predicate  adjectives     ....  300 

35.  Subjunctive  mode  with  the  verb  be 301 


366  KEY  TO  RULES 


PRONOUNS  (Rules  36-45) 

PAGE 

36.  Definite  antecedent  required 302 

b.    A  pronoun  should  not  refer  to  a  phrase  or  clause   .  303 

37.  Number:  Agreement  of  subject  and  predicate  substan- 

tive          303 

a.   Use  of  intensive  pronoun  myself,  yourself,  etc.          .  304 

38.  Number :  Agreement  of  pronoun  with  antecedent  .         .  304 

39.  Use  relative  pronouns  that  are  appropriate.     (Meaning 

of  each) 304 

40.  Relative  pronoun  must  have  a  distinct  connective  use     .  305 

41.  Case:  Of  compound  relative  pronouns     ....  306 

42.  Case  :  Of  pronoun  used  as  predicate  substantive      .         .  306 

43.  Case  :  Of  objective  complements 306 

44.  Case :  Of  principal  word  of  a  prepositional  phrase  .         .  307 

45.  Case :  Of  appositive  modifiers 307 


MODIFIERS  (Rules  46-55) 

46.  Double  negatives 309 

47.  Redundant  modifiers         .         .        .        .        .        .         .310 

48.  Ellipsis  of  modifiers  ........  310 

49.  Dangling  modifiers 311 

50.  Irrelevant  modifiers 311 

51.  Indefinite  modifiers 312 

52.  Arrangement  of  modifiers         , 313 

a.   "  The  split  infinitive  " 313 

53.  Possessive  modifiers  •"'•',        .        .        .         .        .         .313 

54.  Possessive  modifier  with  a  gerund 314 

55.  Demonstrative  adjective  modifiers 315 


COORDINATION  AND  SUBORDINATION  OF  THOUGHTS 
(Rules  56-60) 

56.  Unwarranted  subordination 319 

a.   The  "and  which"  and  "but  which"  constructions    319 

57.  Unwarranted  coordination        ,        .        .        .        .        .    320 


KEY   TO  RULES  367 

PAGE 

58.  Reversed  sentence  structure       ......     320 

59.  Compound  sentences  unwarranted    .....     321 

60.  Unwarranted  simple  sentence  construction       .         .         .     322 


COORDINATION  AND  SUBORDINATION  OF  THOUGHT 
ELEMENTS  (Rules  61-65) 

61.  Indicate  coordination  by  sentence  structure     .         .         .  323 

62.  Unwarranted  coordination  of  thought  elements       .         .  324 

63.  Unwarranted  coordination  by  ellipsis       ....  325 

64.  Coordinate  construction  with  correlative  conjunctions     .  325 

65.  Improper  subordination  of   thought  elements.     (Show 

their  use) 326 

COMPOUND  WORDS  (Rules  66-70) 

66.  The  hyphen  with  fractions,  compound  numerals,  etc.      .  329 

67.  The  hyphen  to  distinguish  words      .....  329 

68.  The  hyphen  with  adjective-participle  compounds     .         .  329 

69.  Special  compound  word  forms  .         .         .         .         .        .  330 

70.  A  list  of  compound  words 330 

DICTION  (Rules  71-75) 

71.  Poetic  words  in  prose 332 

72.  Conventional  expressions 332 

73.  Colloquial  expressions 333 

74.  Vulgarisms 333 

75.  Repetition  of  words 334 


INDEX 


(The  references  are  to  pages.) 


Abbreviations,  359 ;  in  letter  writ- 
ing, 157. 

Absolute  constructions,  276. 

Accents,  poetic,  255. 

Addresses,  public,  210-238;  see 
also  Composition,  oral. 

Adjectives,  demonstrative,  315  ; 
limiting,  descriptive,  274  ;  predi- 
cate, 301. 

JEsop,  173. 

After-dinner  speeches,  234. 

Allegory,  351. 

Alliteration,  260. 

Americanisms,  336. 

Anapaest,  257. 

Anecdote,  172. 

Anticlimax,  352. 

Antithesis,  352. 

Antonyms,  337. 

Apostrophe,  351. 

Appositives,  278,  307. 

Argumentation,  6,  124-136;  see 
also  Debating. 

Argumentative    writing,     124-147. 

Arrangement,  forms  of,  351;  see 
also  Proper  arrangement. 

Art,  200-202. 

As,  pronoun,  305. 

Background,  37-38,  64. 

Barbarisms,  335. 

Biography,  189-193. 

Blank  verse,  260. 

Book  reviews,  203-209. 

BOSTON  EVENING  TRANSCRIPT,  182. 

BOURDILLON,  W.,  112. 

Brackets,  277. 

Briefs,  244-269. 

BURKE,  E.,  144. 

Caesura,  259. 
Capitalization,  265-269. 


Cards  of  invitation,  165-166. 

CARLYLE,  T.,  93,  201,  235. 

Case,  306-307. 

Causes,  effects,  77. 

CHAMBERLIN,  J.  E.,  20. 

Characters,  35-36,  64;  in  fables, 
172-173. 

Character  sketch,  116-118, 196-200. 

CHICAGO  TRIBUNE,  187. 

Clause ;  conditional,  300  ;  depend- 
ent, independent,  317. 

CLEVELAND,  G.,  141. 

Climax,  351. 

Coherence,  3,  38. 

Colloquialisms,  333,  335. 

Comparison,  76. 

Composition,     1 ;      oral,     169-171. 

Conjunctions;  correlative,  325; 
disjunctive,  288 ;  double  con- 
nectives, 319;  in  complex  sen- 
tences, 317 ;  in  compound  sen- 
tences, 319. 

Contrast,  77. 

Conversation,  see  Direct  discourse. 

COOKE,  R.  G.,  90,  137. 

Coordination,  318-326. 

COPPEE,  F.,  24. 

Correction  marks,  360-361. 

Criticism,  103-106,  109-116;  oral, 
171 ;  see  also  Essays. 

Dactyl,  257. 

Debating,  239-252. 

Definition,  74-78. 

Description,    5,    7-22 ;     in    fiction, 

33-34. 

Descriptive  writing,  7-32. 
Descriptive-expository,  31-32,  85. 
Descriptive-narrative,  22-30. 
Diaeresis,  329. 
Diction,    332-334;     definitions    in, 


369 


INDEX 


335-338 ;    exercises,  118 ;    in  po-  [  IRVING,  W.,  95 
etry,  254-255 ;   see  also  Words.        Iteration,  75-76 

Direct  discourse,  43-45,  53  ;    punc- 
tuation of,  279.  JAMES,  H.,  205. 

Division,  69-74;  in  addresses,  210;    JOBDAN,  D.  S.,  118. 

in  debates,  242,  249.  '    Journalism ;  see  News  writing. 


Editorials,  186-188. 
Ellipsis,  278,  337;  of  modifier, 
310,  325;  of  verb,  286,  288;  in 
letter  writing,  157-158;  improper 
coordination  by,  325 ;  with  sub- 
ordinate clause,  326;  dangling 
modifiers,  311. 

Emotional  appeal;  in  argumenta- 
tion, 127-128;  in  debates,  240; 
in  orations,  221. 

Emphasis,  240. 

Essays,  185-209;  art  criticism, 
200-202  ;  biographical,  189-193  • 
editorial,  186-188  ;  literary  criti- 
cism, 193-200 ;  reviews,  203-209. 

Examples,  76. 

Exposition,  6,  66-78;  informal, 
scientific,  67-68 ;  present  tense  in 
294. 

Expository  writing,  66-123. 

Fable,  172-175. 

FIELD,  E.,  104. 

Figures  of  speech,  107-108,  348-351. 

For,  272. 

FRANKLIN,  B.,  41. 

GALSWORTHY,  J.,  27. 
General  characteristics,  74,  77. 
Generalized  description,  32,  85. 
Generalized  narration,  32,  78. 
Gerund  with  possessive,  314. 
GILSON,  R.  R.,  47,  54. 
Glossary,  339. 

HENDERSON,  C.  H.,  16. 
HOLMES,  O.  W.,  100. 
Homonyms,  337. 
HUDSON,  H.  N.,  196. 
Humor,  355. 
Hyphen,  328  ff. 


Letter  writing,  148-166;    five  rules 

of,  157-159. 
Localisms,  336. 
I  LOTI,  P.,  57. 

McGEE,  C.,  97. 
MALORY,  T.,  109. 
MARTIN,  G.  M.,  49,  59. 
MAYS,  J.  H.,  227. 
MERRIAM,  F.  A.,  22. 
Metaphor,  349. 
Meter,  258. 
Metonymy,  350. 
MILTON,  J.,  262. 
Mode;  see  Verb. 
Modifiers,  309-315. 
MONTGOMERY,  L.  M.,  14. 

Narration,  5,  33-39,  83. 

Narrative  writing,  33-65. 

Neatness,  18,  28. 

News  writing,  176-184. 

Nouns;  collective,  288;  requiring 
plural  verb,  287 ;  requiring  singu- 
lar verb,  287. 

Numbers;  in  letter  writing,  158; 
hyphen  in,  329. 

Obsolescent  words,  336. 
|  Obsolete  words,  336. 
One,  286,  330. 
I  Orations,  220-234. 
I  ORR,  L.,  189. 

[Outlines,  71,  80,  88,  100,  102,  122; 
of  argument,  142,  146;  see  also 
Briefs. 


Iambus,  256. 
Improprieties,  337. 
Infinitives,  295. 
Irony,  357. 


Paragraphing,  30,  80-85. 

Parallel  construction,  318-326. 

Parenthetical  expressions,  277. 
I  Particular  details,  10-12,  74. 

Pathetic  fallacy,  38. 

Pathos,  356. 
I  Personification,  350. 
I  Plagiarism,  222. 

Pleonasm,  338 ;  in  letter  writing,  158. 


INDEX 


371 


Plot,  36-37,  46. 

POE,  E.  A.,  19. 

Poetry,  253-262. 

Point  of  view ;    in  description,   9 ; 

in  narration,  34-35,  41,  49. 
Possessi ves,  313-314. 
Predicate  substantive,  303,  306. 
Premise;  see  Syllogism. 
Prolixity,  338. 
Pronouns,  302-307. 
Proof;  see  Reasoning. 
Proper  arrangement,  3,  10,  17,  38- 

39,  313  ;   first  law  of,  9. 
Proportion,  2,  38. 
Proposition,  124,  126,  131  ff.,  241. 
Prose,  253. 
Punctuation,  269-282. 

Quotations ;  capitalization  of,  265 ; 
indirect,  298-299;  punctuation 
of,  279. 

Reasoning,  127, 128-137  ;  inductive, 
deductive,  129-132 ;  errors  in, 
132-136. 

Redundance,  310,  338. 

REED,  T.  B.,  215. 

Refutation,  244. 

Reviews;  see  Essays. 

Rhetoric,  2. 

Rhyme,  259-260. 

Rhythm,  256-259. 

Sarcasm,  357. 

Satire,  356. 

Scansion,  258-259. 

Sentences,  92;  periodic,  loose, 
balanced,  93-97  ;  simple,  complex, 
compound,  316-322 ;  coordina- 
tion and  subordination  in,  318- 
326;  incomplete,  285;  struc- 
ture of,  285-326;  transitional, 
224;  topic,  36,  84-85,  226. 

Series  of  expressions ;  articles  with, 
310;  capitalization  of,  266;  in- 
correct, 324 ;  punctuation  be- 
fore, 275 ;  punctuation  of,  274, 
282. 

Shall  and  will,  297-300. 

Simile,  349. 

Slang,  100,  335. 

So,  312. 


Solecisms,  337. 

Sonnet,  261. 

Speeches;  see  Addresses. 

SPENCER,  H.,  94. 

Split  infinitive,  313. 

Stanza,  261. 

STEVENSON,  R.  L.,  85. 

Stories;  see  Narrative  writing. 

Style;    of    new    stories,     180;      of 

orations,  223  ;    special  properties 

of,  353-358. 
Subordination,   in   sentences,   318- 

326. 

Such,  such  a,  312. 
Superlatives,  313. 
Syllogisms,  131  ff.,  140. 
Synonyms,  337. 

Tautology,  338. 

TENNYSON,  A.,  103,  107. 

Tense;  see  Verb. 

Than,  conjunction,  307. 

Themes,    directions ;     for    writing, 

360 ;   for  correcting,  360. 
Those,  312,  315. 
Thought  elements,  323  ff. 
Titles ;    capitalization  of,  267 ;    in 

letter  writing,  159. 
Trochee,  257. 

Unity,  2,  38. 

Verb;  agreement  with  subject, 
286-288 ;  mode,  301 ;  principal 
parts,  290-292;  tense,  290-295, 
297-298;  with  predicate  ad- 
jectives, 300. 

Verbosity,  338. 

Verse ;  quotation  of,  280 ;  struc- 
ture of,  256, 

Vulgarisms,  333,  335. 

WARNER,  C.  D.,  52. 

What,  pronoun,  305. 

Will  and  shall,  297-300. 

Wit,  354. 

Words;  see  also  Diction;  com- 
pound, 327-332 ;  conventional, 
colloquial,  332,  333;  glossary 
of  misused,  339-347;  poetic, 
332  ;  repetition  of,  334. 

YOUTH'S  COMPANION,  THE,  98. 


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